Sodasa upachar seva pujan – offer aradhanam of 16 items
asan (offer seat)
swagatham (greeting with anjali mudra)
padyam (washing Lord’s feet – footwash)
sugandam tailam (anointing with oils)
snaniyam (bathing)
phala malyam (fruit garlands – made of grapes, mandarin, dried fruits)
sotiriya vastram (offering cloth, change wet set dress)
tilam (marking the deity with auspicious signs and symbols)
upavatam (sacred thread)
abharanam (decorate with jewels)
malyam (garland)
gandam (sandalwood paste)
sugandam pushpam (flower petals dipped in sandalwood paste)
tulasi patram (tulasi leaves)
dhupam (incense)
deepam (lamp, light)
naivedyam , paniyam (food)
prananya svaha (prana mudra); apanaya svaha (apana mudra)
vyanaya svana (vyana mudra); udanaya svaha (udana mudra)
samanaya svaha (samana mudra); brahmaye svaha
om amrito pAstrAnamasi

tambulam (betal, cloves, candamon, rock candy, chmas, suparis)

by S. Srinivasa Rao

http://ssubbanna.sulekha.com/blog/post/2007/10/temple-worship-and-rituals-1-of-5.htm

This is the first of the five articles on certain aspects of temple worship and its related rituals
***
The Hindu temples are complex institutions.  They represent the culmination of social and religious  aspirations of a society. Temple is the focal point in the life of a community and often represents  its pride, identity and unity. It is also the index of the community’s wellbeing. It draws into its fold  people from its various segments and denominations; and binds them together. In smaller communities the temple apart from being a source of spiritual or religious comfort, also serves as center for education and recreation.

A temple is also a treasure house of art and architecture, designed according to the principle of Vaastu Shastra, characterized by their majesty, serenity and beauty of intricate sculpture and designs. A temple evokes in the visitor a sense of beauty in art and in life as well. It lifts up his spirit, elevates him to a higher plane dissolving his little ego. At the same time, it awakens him to his insignificance in the grand design of the Creator.

The most significant aspect of the temple worship is its collective character. Peoples’ participation is both the purpose and the means of a temple. The community is either actually or symbolically involved in temple worship. The rituals that dominate temple worship are therefore socio- religious in character.

The worship in a temple has to satisfy the needs of individuals as also of the community. The worships that take place in the sanctum and within the temple premises are important; so are the festivals and occasional processions that involve direct participation of the entire community. They complement each other. While the worship of the deity  in the sanctum might be an individual’s  spiritual or religious need ; the festival s are the expression of a community’s joy , exuberance , devotion , pride and are also an idiom of a community’s cohesiveness .

The appointed priests carry out the worship in the temple on behalf of other devotees. It is hence parartha, a service conducted for the sake of others. Priests, generally, trained in ritual procedures, pursue the service at the temple as a profession. As someone remarked, “other people may view their work as worship, but for the priests worship is work.” They are trained in the branch of the Agama of a particular persuasion. The texts employed in this regard describe the procedural details of temple worship, elaborately and precisely.
***

The term Agama primarily means tradition. Agama Shastras are not part of the Vedas. The Agamas do not derive their authority directly from the Vedas. They are Vedic in spirit and character and make use of Vedic mantras while performing the service. That is the reason they are regarded as authoritative.

One often hears Agama and Nigama mentioned in one breath as if one follows the other or are closely related; whereas Nigama stands for Vedas and Agama is identified with Tantra..   The two traditions- Veda and Tantra – hold divergent views on matters such as God; relationship between man and God; the ways of worship; and path to salvation etc.The Vedic concept of God is omniscient, omnipotent, a formless absolute entity manifesting itself in phenomenal world of names and forms. The Agama which is a part of Tantra regards God as a personal deity with recognizable forms and attributes.

Vedic worship is centered on the fire- (the Yajna), certain religious and domestic rituals, (shrauta sutraas and griyha sutraas), and the sacraments, (samskaara). In this tradition the gods and their descriptions are, mostly, symbolic. The hymns of the Rig Veda are inspired outpourings of joy through sublime poetry. The Yajur and Sama Vedas do contain suggestions of sacrifices; but they too carry certain esoteric symbolic meaning.  Very few of these rituals are in common practice today.

The most widespread rituals of worship today are of the Aagamic variety. The Agama methods are worship of images of God through rituals (Tantra), symbolic charts (Yantra) and verbal symbols (Mantra).Agama regards devotion and complete submission to deity as fundamental to pursuit of it aim; and wisdom, enlightenment (jnana) as that which follows eventually by the grace of the worshipped deity. The approach of Agama is basically dualistic, seeking grace, mercy and love of the Supreme God represented by the personal deity, for liberation from earthly attachments (moksha).

As compared to Vedic rituals (Yajnas) which were collective in form, where a nuber of priests specialized in each disciple of the Sacrifical aspects participated; the Tantra or Agamic worship is individualistic in character. It views the rituals as a sort of direct communication between the worshipper and his or her personal deity. The Yajnas always take place in public places and are of congregational nature, where a large number participate with gaiety and enthusiasm. The Tantra rituals, on the other hand, are always carried out in quiet privacy; self discipline and intensity is its hallmark not exuberance or enthusiasm.

The culmination of these two assimilar streams of worship is the temple worship. Though one concedes that representation of Godhead is theoretically impossible; yet one has to recognize that an image helps contemplation, visualization and concretization of ideas and aspirations. Here, at the temple , both the Vedic and the Tantric worships take place; but each in its sphere. A temple in Hindu tradition is a public place of worship; several sequences of worship are conducted in full view of the worshipping devotee; and yet another set of rituals are conducted by the priests in the privacy of the sanctum away from public gaze.

The temple worship is guided by its related Agama texts which invariably borrow the mantras from the Vedic traditions and ritualistic details from Tantric traditions.  This had the advantage of claiming impressive validity from Nigama, the Vedas; and at the same time carrying out popular methods of worship. For instance, Vedic mantras are chanted in traditional manner while performing services such as ceremonial bath, adoring the deity with flowers, or waving lights.

In addition, the worship routine was rendered more colorful and attractive by incorporating a number of ceremonial services (upacharas) and also presentations of music, dance, drama and other performing arts. These also ensured larger participation of the enthusiastic devotees.  In due course the Agama came to be accepted as a subsidiary culture (Vedanga) within the Vedic framework.
***

Agamas are a set of ancient texts and are the guardians of tradition .They broadly deal with jnana  (knowledge), Yoga (meditation), Kriya (rituals) and Charya (ways of worship). The third segment Kriya (rituals) articulate with precision the principles and practices of deity worship – the mantras, mandalas, madras etc.; the mental disciplines required for the worship; the rules for constructing temples and sculpting the images. They also specify the conduct of other worship services, rites, rituals and festivals. The fourth one, Charya, deals with priestly conduct and other related aspects.[ incidentally , the Buddhist and the Jaina traditions too follow this four-fold classification.]

They hold the view that Japa, homa, dhyana and Archa are the four methods of worshipping the divine; and of these, the Archa (worship) is the most comprehensive method. This is the faith on which the Agama shastra is based. The Agama shastra is basically concerned with the attitudes, procedure and rituals of deity worship in the temples. But it gets related to icons and temple structures rather circuitously. It says if an image has to be worshipped it has to be worship worthy.

The rituals and sequences of worship are relevant only in the context of an icon worthy of worship; and such icon has to be contained in a shrine. And an icon is meaningful only in the context of a shrine that is worthy to house it. That is how the Agama literature makes its presence felt in the Silpa-Sastra. The icon and its form; the temple and its structure;   and the rituals and their details, are all thus interrelated.

I am not sure about the historical development of the Agamas. However,  I think  , the most present Hindu rituals of worship seem to have developed after the establishment of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy (darshanas). The changes in religious rituals from the Vedic to the Aagaamic seem consonant with the themes prevalent in the six orthodox systems. A very significant change is the integration of Yoga methodology into the rituals. Four of these eight stages are an integral part of all ‘worship’ – namely, posture, (aasana), breath (life force)-control, (praanaayaama), placing or fixation, (nyaasa or dhaaranaa), and deep concentration & contemplation (dhyaana). .

The temple architecture too follows the structure of the human body and the six chakras’ as in yoga.

Surely the Agama tradition  began to flourish after the 10th or the 11th century with the advent of the Bhakthi School.
**

There are three main divisions in Agama shastra, the Shaiva, the Shaktha and Vaishnava. The Shaiva branch of the Agama deals with the worship of the deity in the form of Shiva. This branch in turn has given rise to Shaiva Siddantha of the South and the Prathyabijnana School of Kashmir Shaivisim. The Shaktha Agama prescribes the rules and tantric rituals for worship of Shakthi, Devi the divine mother. The third one, Vaishanava Agama adores God as Vishnu the protector. This branch has two major divisions Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra. The latter in turn has a sub branch called Tantra Sara followed mainly by the Dvaita sect (Madhwas).

Agama is essentially a tradition and Tantra is a technique; but both share the same ideology. But, Agama is wider in its scope; and contains aspects oh theory, discussion and speculation.  The term Agama is used usually for the Shaiva and Vasishnava traditions and the Shaktha cult is termed as Tantric. But, there is an element of Tantra in Agama worship too, particularly in Pancharatra.
***

As regards Vaikhanasa, after the emergence of temple _culture, Vaikhanasa appear to have been the first set of professional priests and they chose to affiliate to the Vedic tradition. That may be perhaps  the reason they are referred to also as Vaidikagama or Sruthagama. Yet, there is no definite explanation for the term Vaikhanasa. Some say it ascribed to Sage Vaikhanasa; while some others say it is related to vanaprastha, a community of forest-dwellers.

As regards their doctrine, Vaikhanasas claim to be a surviving school of Vedic ritual propagated by the sage Vaikhanasa. Most of Vaikhanasa is almost completely concerned with ritual, prescribing the rituals and their rules of performance of yaga, yajnas etc. To the Vaikhanasas, their temple worship is a continuation of Vedic fire sacrifice. The Vaikhanasa doctrine states that moksha is release into Vaikunta determined by the nature of a man’s devotion and faith experienced mainly through archana, service to the deity.

The Vaikhanasa is regarded orthodox for yet another reason; they consider the life of the
householder as the best among the four stages of life. Because, it is the householder that
supports, sustains and carries forward the life in the society. They treat the worship at home as more important than worship at the temple. A Vaikhanasa has therefore to worship the deities at his home before he leaves for his   duty as a priest at the temple. There is not much prominence for a Yati or a Sanyasi in their scheme of things.

The Agama texts make a clear distinction between the worship carried out at his home (atmartha) and the worship carried out as priest at a temple(parartha ) for which he gets paid. A person who receives remuneration for worshipping a deity is not held in high esteem. This perhaps led to a sort of social prejudices and discriminations among the priestly class. But, with the change of times, with the social and economic pressures and with a dire need to earn a living, a distinct class of temple-priests , naturally , crystallysized into a close knit in-group with its own ethos and attitudes.

From the end of the tenth century Vaikhanasa are prominently mentioned in South Indian inscriptions. Vaikhanasas were the priests of Vaishnava temples and were also the admistrators.

However with the advent of Sri Ramanuja, who was also the first organizer of temple administration at Srirangam Temple, the Vaikhanasa system of worship lost its prominence and gave place to the more liberal Pancharatra system .Sri Ramanuja permitted participation of lower castes and ascetics , the Sanyasis ( who were not placed highly in the Vaikhanasa scheme)  in temple services. He also expanded the people participation in other areas too. This change spread to other Vaishnava temples particularly in Tamil Nadu. Vaikhanasas, however, continued to be important mainly in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and some temples in Tamil Nadu.

As regards Pancharatra, it appears to have been a later form of worship that gained prominence with the advent of Sri Ramanuja .Pancharathra claims its origin from Sriman Narayana himself.  Here Vishnu is worshipped as the Supreme Being conceived in five ways:
Para, or transcendent form;
Vyuha or the categorized form as Vasudeva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, who are brought together in worship and adoration as a complete body of divine power;
Vibhava, or the several incarnation of God;
Archa, or the form of God worshipped in an image or an idol symbolizing the Universal entity;
And, Antaryamin, or the indwelling immanent form of God as present throughout in creation.
The peak of Vaishnava devotion is recorded in Dashamaskanda, the Tenth Book of the Bhagavata Purana, and in Nalayira Prabhandam the four thousand Tamil verses of the Vaishnava saints the

Alvars, and especially in the thousand songs known as Tiruvaimozhi of Nammalvar. The ecstasy of the Gopi-type of God – intoxicated-love is exhilarating and gives raise to divine intoxication in Nammalvar’s poetic compositions.

Therefore the Tamils verses and songs are prominent in Pancharatra worship. This method also employs more Tantras, Mandalas and Uthsavas which makes room for a large number of devotees of all segments of the society to participate. There are here more Jaanapada (popular) methods of worship than mere Vedic performance of Yajnas. Even here, each prominent temple follows its favorite text. That is the reason there are some minor differences even among the Pancharatra temples.

Among the differences between Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra, the latter say they gain eligibility to worship (Diksha) after the ceremonial Chkrankana, which is imprinting the symbols of Vishnu imprinted on their body. Vaikhanasa see no need for such a ritual. The pregnant mother is given a cup of Payasam with the Vishnu seal in the cup. They recognize as worthy only such Garbha_Vaishnavas.

Vaikhanasa follow the lunar calendar while the Pancharatra follow the solar calendar.
Vaikhanasa consider Vishnu_Vishvaksena_Brighu as the guru_parampara; while Pancharatra consider Vishnu_Vishvaksena_Satagopa_Nathamuni_Yamuna_Ramanuja as the guru -parampara.

Vaikhanasa think it is enough if the daily worship is performed once in a day or if needed it could be stretched to six times in a day (shat kala puja). Pancharatra do not place any limit. If needed the service could be even 12 times a day, they say.

The other differences are that Vaikhanasa worship is considered more Vedic, the mantras being Sanskrit based and there is a greater emphasis on details of worship rituals and yajnas. Even here, the householders and celibates get priority in worshipping the deity. They consider Griha_archana the worship at home as more important than the congregational worship. The Sanyasis or ascetics have no place in this system.
Whereas in Pancharatra, more Tamil hymns are recited and there is greater scope for festivals and processions where all sections of the society including ascetics can participate.
***
What is more important than the rituals is the symbolism that acts as the guiding spirit for conduct of rituals. At a certain level, symbolism takes precedence over procedures.
I think ultimately there is not much difference between Pancharatra and Vaikhanasa traditions. Both are equally well accepted. The differences, whatever they might be, are not significant to a devotee who visits the temple just to worship the deity and to submit himself to the divine grace.
—-
<end of part 1>

Temple worship and rituals (2 of 5)

Symbolism in temple worship

The Agama texts mention that divinity may be worshipped in one of the four ways:
(1) Japa, recitation of the holy name as initiated by the Guru ;
(2) Homa, oblations offered in Agni accompanied by appropriate hymns ;
(3) Archana, actual worship (of nine types); and
(4) Dhyana, meditation on transcendental and empirical aspects of divinity.

The first approach is through a pattern of sounds (nada/shabda) while the second is through the medium of Agni. Meditation isindependent of concrete representations. All these three are individual approaches. It is the Archa, the worship of a deity individually and in communion with fellow devotees that is easiest. Further, the Archa includes in itself the essentials of the other three approaches as well. Archana in temples is an integrated mosaic of individual and congregational worship; and is the most popular approach.

The formal worship of deities in Hindu traditions broadly follows the Vedic, Tantric or the mixed (Misra) procedures. The Vedic traditions are centered on Agni (fire) the visible representation of divinity and a medium to approach other gods in celestial realm. Oblations offered into Agni accompanied by recitation of appropriate hymns constitute Vedic worship. The Vedic traditions do not generally provide for worship of icons.

Tantric ideology views the divinity in terms of human or semi human forms (murti) and as represented by diagrams (mandala) and incantations of great merit (mantra).

The temple and iconic worship may appear like tantric. However, in practice the worship at temples involves both homa and archa rituals. The rituals here are a combination of concepts, procedures and symbolism. The symbolism behind this method of worship is that God pervades the universe and that the entire creation is his manifestation. The human mind with its limitations cannot easily comprehend God in absolute; but tries to comprehend divine spirit and bestow a form to the formless. (Na cha rupam vina devo dyatum kenapi sakyate, Vishnu samhita 29, 51). The worship helps the devotee to visualize the incomprehensible divinity in chosen form and attributes so that he may dwell on it and engage himself in a certain service; else, the mind of an ordinary person might lapse into drowsiness or wither away. The texts suggest that human form of God’s image helps the devotee better to meditate on the divine attributes ; and to relate to the spirit of god with love, affection, friendliness, devotion, reverence etc. The temples generally house images of god in human form except in Shiva temples where the image will be in lingam form (even here the processional image will be in human form).

The worshipper is aware all the while that the forms (murti), sounds (mantras) and diagrams (mandalas) employed in worship are human approximations and are inadequate representations of God (prathima svalpa buddhinaam). Yet, he tries to find through them an approach to the Supreme.

It is not very important whether it is archa or the Agni you choose, but it is the devotion and sincerity of purpose that matters. Here, concepts are more significant than precepts; procedures more significant than concepts and symbolism more relevant than procedures.

The temple worship ritual has two distinct aspects; symbolic and actual. The former is the inner worship (manasa puja or antar yajna) and the latter is the procedural aspect, the service (Upachara). In manasa puja, God is the worshipper’s innermost spirit; while in Upachara the personified god is treated and revered as the most venerated guest. The services are rendered with gratitude, love  and devotion.

The Aagama texts, Tantra Sara and Siddha yamala list as many as sixty-four upacharas. However, in practice, about sixteen upacharas are conducted; hence the expression Shodashopachara puja. They are , in sequence: (1) seating ( aasana), (2) welcoming (swagatha), (3)   offering water to wash feet (padya), (4) offering water to wash hands (arghya), ( 5) offering water to sip and rinse mouth ( aachamana), (6) providing a bath (snana), (7) offering fresh clothes and decorations (vastra- abhushana), ( offering fresh sacred thread ( yajno_pavitha), (9) offering aromatic substances like sandal paste (gandha), (10) offering flowers (pushpa), (11) burning incense (dhupa), (12) waving lights ( deepa), (13) offering four kinds of food (naivedya), (14) offering tambula (betel leaves with areca nut, camphor and spices), (15) prostrations (namaskara) and (16) send off (visarjana).

The offerings during the worship are meant to please different aspects of the divine. For instance, Arghya is offered to please celestial deities (deva priyartha), sandal paste is a favorite of the Brahma; flowers favor prosperity; dhupa is dear to Agni (vaishvanara priya); aarathi signifies victory (jaya prada); and offering food- naivedya or havis is for abundance (samruddhi).

Each of the five senses contributes to our joy in life. The five fold offering (Panchopachara) – of Gandha (sandal paste), Pushpa (flowers), Dhupa (fragrance), Deepa (lights) and Naivedya (food) – are submission to the Lord with a request to direct our five sensestowards the goodand the God.

Abhishekha (pouring water over the deity) is an act of love and submission. It purifies the worshippers’ mind and fills with devotion. Flowers confer prosperity, gladden the mind   and hence are Sumanas.Dhupas just as the flowers, gratify the deities immediately. Lights represent energy, fame and upward motion. Lights dispel darkness and ignorance. Satvic food(Naivedya)  of  agreeable scent and appearance mixed with milk  along with flowers and fruits ,offered with reverence and devotion gratify the deities .These offerings submitted with devote  bows , prostrations and absolute surrender do please the Lord.

Prasad and Charanmrit (the residue of the offerings made to the Lord) is most precious, sacred and purifying. It is most the sought after and one who receives it considers himself most fortunate and blessed.

These Upacharas are submitted to the deity only after conducting ceremonial purification of various kinds, infusing life force into the deity and establishing a proper communication with the divinity residing in the icon.

The entire ritual of daily worship  is broadly classified into five stages of worship; (1) aasana, welcoming the divinity to partake the worship; (2) sthapana, seating and invoking life force into the deity; (3) sannidhi_karana, establishing proper communication with the deity; (4) archana main worship; and (5) visarjana bidding farewell or literally dismissing.
Incidentally, in Mahabharata (Anushasana parva), Bhishma describes , among other things , the virtues of worship and talks about the  significance of offering flowers , fruits , lights and food to the deity .
(KM Ganguli’s translation http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b063.htm )
***

All the sixteen (shodasha) upacharas like tendering invitation, offering seat; offering water for the feet and to sip and to rinse the mouth and also for bath; presentation of dry and fresh garments,; serving food etc. are performed with devotion and reverence. The personified God is also the Lord of the Lords who oversees the universe (lokadyaksha).Therefore the honors that are due to a king are offered to the icon as Rajopachara. These include white umbrella, flywhisk, music, dance, vehicles of various sorts, flower pavilions, swings, chariots etc.

All the while the worshipper and the devotees are aware that the external worship characterized by splendor and spectacle is an overflow of religious devotion and is secondary to the main worship, the inner worship manasa puja of the antaryamin (the inner being) residing in ones heart.

The inner worship that takes place in the privacy of the sanctum is more significant than the external worship. These are in a sequence such as Shudhi (purification of elements), Mudras (assumption of appropriate and effective gestures), Pranayama (regulation of breath to enable contemplation of the divinity), Dhyana (contemplation), Soham_bhava (identity of the worshipper with the worshipped), Mantra (words to help realize the deity in worshipper’s heart) and Mandala (diagrams representing aspects of divinity).

Shuddhi is not merely the purification of the sanctum and its ambiance as the worshipper purifies the earth (bhu shuddhi) and the elements but is also the symbolic transformation and accommodation of all the elements that constitute worshippers body and world around him.

Dhyana is an important sequence in internal worship. It is not a prayer in the sense, it is not recited in praise of the deity nor is the worshipper seeking through it fulfillment of his desires. It is essentially to attune the inherent divine nature of the worshipper with the divinity of the deity. The worshipper visualizes and contemplates on the resplendent form of the deity as abiding in his own heart.

Mantras that seek to evoke the power of the deity and the mystical designs (yantras or mandalas) that serve as fit abodes for the deity are also important.

The next step is very significant. According to Tantra ideology, the worshipper regards his body as a Yantra where the deity resides. As a prelude to worship per se, the worshipper literally breathes life into the deity during prana_prathista sequence. The idol is transformed to divinity itself. The worshipper does this by extracting the power or the luster (tejas) of the divinity residing in his heart by means of inhalations and exhalations (ucchvasa and nishvasa), and investing it upon the deity.

At the same time, the worshipper draws the presence of the Highest Spiritual being (paramatma) into his own individual being (jiva).This process symbolizes invoking the divine residing in ones heart, extracting it (bahir agatya) and transferring it with ease (sukham thistathu) in to the deity in front (asmin bimbe).The transferred Tejas stays in the deity until the worship is formally concluded.

The placement (nyasa) of divine presence in the structure of the icon as also in the worshipper is an essential ritual sequence before the actual service (upacharas) commences. Through these nyasas collectively called bhagavad_aaradhana adhikara_yogyata-siddhi, the worshipper secures competence to worship the deity. He invokes divine presence in himself.

This takes three forms.
(1) Matrka-nyasa: placement of fifty seed-sounds (beeja mantra) in several psychic centers (chakras) on different parts of the body.
(2) Devata-nyasa: placement of different aspects of divinity on limbs and different parts of body;
and
(3) Tattva-nyasa: Endowments of twenty-four basic factors (as per Samkhya) to the deity in order to individualize it.

The first two forms of nyasa are Tantric in character and are intended to transform the abstract form of divinity residing within the worshipper into a concrete form of divine as invested in the icon. The second form of nyasa is designed to suit a specific type of deity. The Vaishnavas adopt Keshavadi nyasa; the Shaivas adopt Srikantadi nyasa while Shakthas adopt kala nyasa.

The third nyasa is largely Vedic with traces of Tantra. It sometimes provides a structure for abstract form of worship.

It is only after the deity is thus properly invoked (Avahita), established (stapitha), close at hand (sanhita), positioned right in front of the worshipper (sammukha), confined in a place of honor (sanniruddha) and well concealed under a canopy  (avaguntitha), the worship (upachara) commences and acquires a significance. Unless the worshipper establishes his identity with the worshipped, the rituals have no meaning. The Agama texts prescribe, “God is not to be worshipped by one who has himself not become God” (nadevo bhutva devam pujayet).

After the formal worship is completed, the deity is dismissed (visarjana). This ritual signifies withdrawal of the divine presence (temporarily lodged in the icon) and taking it back into worshipper’s heart (which is its permanent residence). The mantras recited in this context say “ Come , oh God residing in the icon come back into my heart-lotus” (Ehi ehi, prathima sthitha purushottama , mama hrutkamale); “Reside in my heart , O Lord of the worlds , along with your glory” (hrudaya kuru samvasam sriya saha jagatpate).

The foregoing is the broad pattern of ritual worship and its symbolism. However, certain temples where the deity is Self-manifest (Swayambhu) or installed by celestial beings (Deva prathistaha) say, as in Tirumala, follow a slightly different procedure. Here, the deity is the repository of divine powers and the priest need not go through the prana-prathista ritual. The Upacharas (services) are rendered not to the main deity but to a smaller image of the Lord (Kauthuka beru). It is the kauthuka beru that is infused with prana at the time of upachara worship. The priest evokes Tejas  from the main deity , not from his own heart , and transfers it to kauthuka beru.

source:

http://ssubbanna.sulekha.com/blog/post/2007/10/temple-worship-and-rituals-2-of-5-symbolism-of.htm

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<end of part 2>
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Temple worship and rituals (3 of 5)
-Water-its importance in TempleRituals

Water has a variety of applications in temple ritual and is highly essential. One cannot think of worship and ritual in a temple without use of water in some form or other.

The Agama texts prescribe that water for use in worship is collected from a running stream, a spring, a natural lake or a well exposed to sunlight and fresh air. A temple therefore is necessarily built on a site that is well served by supply of fresh water. Even those temples situated away from a stream do have in their premises a natural or an artificial pond usually called Pushkarini, which serves exclusively as a source of water required for temple rituals. It also serves as an arena for sporting the occasional Jala keli or the Teppam float festival.

Water used in the sanctum has to be ritualistically pure; and can be collected only by the priest when he is ready to commence the day’ service. While other people can bring in the other articles required for worship such as flowers, fruits etc., the priest alone should bring in water required for temple rituals. All articles used in worship and brought into the sanctum are sanctified by sprinkling water brought in by priest.

Water has several applications in temple worship apart from cleaning the sanctum.

Concerning the main image in the sanctum, water has four principle applications. The water designated for each purpose is stored in a separate vessel. Those vessels, five in number, are arranged in a specified order on a circular plate, on a tripod stand placed in front of the image within the sanctum. These waters are sanctified by recitation of appropriate mantras. The other articles used in worship and the platform on which the worship is conducted are purified by sprinkling the sanctified water.

The four main applications of water, during the worship, are:

(1) Paadya: Paadya is Water for washing the feet of the lord. The vessel containing water meant for this purpose is placed in the South-West corner of the circular plate. Paadya is mixed with four substances viz. khus khus (usira), Sandal wood paste (chandana), blades of durvaa grass and white mustard (siddha). This act of devotion and reverence is accompanied by recitation of hymns such as Purusha Suktha , Rudra Paata or other hymn as is appropriate.

(2) Aachamana:Water offered to the image for sipping or rinsing the mouth is Aachamana. During this process, water is also offered to clean teeth (danta dhavana) and to wash the tongue (jihva sodhana).The vessel containing water for Aachamana is placed on the North-West corner of the circular plate. Aachamana water is mixed with six substances viz. Cardamom (ela), cloves (lavanga), camphor (karpura), jambu fruit, jasmine flower (jati) and fruit called priyangu

(3) Arghya: Water offered to cleanse hands is Arghya. The Arghya-water vessel is placed on the South East corner of the circular plate. Arghya water is a mixture of eight substances viz. gingerly (tila) ,rice (vrihi), tips of kusha grass, milk, wheat, winnowed grains (tandula), mustard ( sarshapa) and water from the conch(shanka)

(4)Snana: The ritual bath is known as snana, abhishekha, or marjana.Abhisheka is an act  od love,reverence and submission.It purifies the worshipper’s mind and fills with devotion.The water meant for ceremonial bath is placed on the North-East corner of the circular plate.Snana water is elaborately prepared with use of herbs, spices, flowers and creams/lotions.

The herbal bath is made up of herbal decoction (kashaya) of the barks of seven types of trees: palasha, oudumbara, ashvattha, madhuka, plaksha, patala, and jambu.

It is customary to use water sprinkled with sweet milk for the second round of bathing; after which the image is covered with turmeric paste and again washed with clean water (shuddodhaka).

Panchamrita is an amalgum of fruits such as banana, mango etc.mixwed with five substances : milk,curds,ghee,honey and sugar.This Snana follows a sequence.The bath in milk (dugdha) is followed by bath in curds(dadhi), in ghee(gritha), in honey(madhu) and in sugar(sharkara). This is followed by bath in tender coconot water(narikela).

With each of the five articles, a form of Vishnu is invoked; Govinda with milk, Vamana with curd, Vishnu with ghee, Madhusudana with honey and Achyuta with sugar. The snana is accompanied with recital of appropriate hymns.
Sometimes a shower bath with a silver plate having a thousand holes (sahasra dhara) is given to the idol.
Finally, another bath in fresh water is administered again before the deity is offered Vastra (clothing) and alankara (ornaments)

***
The fifth vessel placed at the centre of the circular plate holds water meant for general purpose (sarvathra toya); and is mixed with Tulasi leaves, flowers, gingelly seeds and sandal paste.

***

An occasional purification bath is conducted on astrologically significant days such as ayana or vishva or on solar or lunar eclipses or on certain auspicious days. For purpose of purification, five products of cow (pancha-gavya) ghee)-ghrita (representing Rudra and regarded most adorable), curds -dadhi (representing Soma a symbol of progeny), milk-kshira (representing Sukra helpful in eliminating enemy), cow’s urine – go_ mutra (representing Nata and indicative of prosperity) and cow dung-go_maya (representing arka or sun, beneficial in warding off diseases. There is a standard method for preparing this concoction he cow dung is mixed with cow’s urine; and then this mixture is put into ghee which in turn is mixed with curds; and finally the whole mixture is put into milk.

Water is used at every stage of worship- before, during and after the worship. Apart from this, the priest performs certain rituals preliminary to worship and at the conclusion of the worship, for which sanctified water is essential.

The devotees , with reverence and devotion , in fullfilment of their worship, receive Thirtha or Charanmrit , a residue from the Snana offered to the idol.Prasad and Thirtha are most sacred and purifying. They are most sought after and one who receives them considers  himself fortunate and blessed.

Reference:
Agama kosha  By Prof. SK R Rao

http://ssubbanna.sulekha.com/blog/post/2007/10/temple-worship-and-rituals-3-of-5-water-its-importance.htm

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1. Gyan Mudra (Mudra of Knowledge):

Method:
Touch the tip of the thumb to the tip of the index finger, with the other three fingers stretched out.
Specialty:
As it is a mudra of knowledge, it enhances the knowledge. The tip of thumb has centers of pituitary and endocrine glands. When we press these centers by index finger the two glands work actively.
Time duration:
There is no particular time duration for this mudra. You can practice by sitting, standing or lying on bed whenever and wherever you have time.
Benefits:
o Increases memory power and sharpens the brain
o Enhances concentration and prevents Insomnia
o If we practice it regularly, it will cure all psychological disorders like Mental, Hysteria, Anger and Depression

2. Prithvi Mudra (Mudra of Earth):

Method:
Tip of the ring finger touches the tip of the thumb, with the other three fingers stretched out.
Specialty:
It reduces all physical weaknesses.
Time Duration:
It has no particular time duration. You can practice it any time you want.
Benefits:
o It helps to increase the weight for weak people
o It improves the complexion of skin and makes the skin to glow
o It makes the body active by keeping it healthy

3. Varuna Mudra (Mudra of Water):

Method:
Tip of little finger touches the tip of thumb, with the other three fingers stretched out.
Specialty:
It balances the water content and prevents all diseases which come due to lack of water.
Time Duration:
It has no specific time duration and one can practice it according to their time.
Benefits:
o It retains clarity in blood by balancing water content in the body
o Prevents the pains of Gastroenteritis and Muscle Shrinkage

4. Vayu Mudra (Mudra of Air):

Method:
Keep the index finger on the base of the thumb and press with thumb keeping the other three fingers straight.
Specialty:
It prevents all the diseases that occur due to the imbalance of the air.
Time Duration:
The practice of this mudra for 45 minutes reduces the severity of the disease in 12 to 24 hours. For better results practice it for two months.
Benefits:
o It cures Rheumatism, Arthritis, Gout, Parkinson’s disease and paralysis without any medicine
o It is useful for Cervical Spondilytis, paralysis to face and catching of nerve in neck
o It corrects the disorder of gas in the stomach

5. Shunya Mudra (Mudra of Emptiness):

Method:
Keep the middle finger at the mount of Venus and press it with thumb.
Specialty:
It reduces the dullness in our body.
Time Duration:
One can practice it for 40 to 60 minutes daily until to be cured from the disease.
Benefits:
o It relieves an earache within 4 or 5 minutes
o It is useful for the deaf and mentally challenged, but not for inborn ones.

6. Surya Mudra (Mudra of Sun):

Method:
Bend the ring finger and press it with thumb.
Specialty:
It sharpens the center in thyroid gland .
Time Duration:
Practice it daily twice for 5 to 15 minutes.
Benefits:
o It reduces cholesterol in body and helps in reducing weight
o It reduces anxiety
o It corrects indigestion problems

7. Prana Mudra (Mudra of Life):

Method:
Bend ring finger and little finger and touch the tip of thumb with their tips keeping the remaining two fingers stretched.
Specialty:
As it is the mudra of life, it improves the power of life. Weak people become strong. It reduces the clamps in blood vessels . If we practice it regularly, we will become active.
Time Duration:
No specific time duration. One can practice it any time.
Benefits:
o It improves immunity
o Improves the power of eyes and reduces eye related diseases
o It removes the vitamin deficiency and fatigue

8. Apana Mudra (Mudra of Digestion):

Method:
The tips of middle finger and ring finger touch the tip of thumb while the other two fingers are stretched out.
Specialty:
It plays an important role in our health as it regulates the excretory system.
Time Duration:
Practice it daily for 45 minutes, but practice for longer time yields more benefits.
Benefits:
o It regulates diabetes
o It cures constipation and piles
o It helps excreting the normal waste regularly

9. Apana Vayu Mudra (Mudra of Heart):

Method:
The tips of the middle finger and ring finger touch the tip of thumb, while the index finger touches the base of thumb and little finger stretched out.
Specialty:
It benefits the heart. It works like injection in the reduction of heart attack. It is as powerful as sorbitate tablet. It reduces the gas content in body.
Time Duration:
Practice it as many times as you can. Heart patients and BP patients can practice it for 15 minutes daily twice for better results.
Benefits:
o It strengthens the heart and regularizes palpitation
o It regulates excretory system
o It redeems gastric trouble

10. Linga Mudra (Mudra of Heat):

Method:
Interlock the fingers of both the hands and keep the thumb of the left hand vertically straight and encircle it with the thumb and the index finger of the right hand..
Specialty:
It generates heat in our body. Take milk, ghee, more water and fruit juices in addition to practice of this mudra for much benefits.
Time Duration:
Practice it any time you want. But don’t practice it a lot as it produces heat in the body.. It can cause sweating even in winter if you practice it longer.
Benefits:
o It stops production of phlegm and gives power to lungs
o It cures severe cold and bronchial infection
o It invigorates the body
It is amazing but true. If you want to see the results, start today!

Source:

http://www.healthmad.com/Mental-Health/Health-in-Your-Hand-Seven-Mudras-for-Amazing-Health-Benefits.49665

1. Information related to the term ‘Shraddha’

A. Meaning and Scope

The term ‘Shraddha’ has originated from ‘Shraddhaa’ (faith). It is impossible to repay the various favors, which our deceased forefathers have done for us. The ritual performed for them with complete faith is known as Shraddha.

B: Definition

The definition of Shraddha as given in the ‘Shraddha’ chapter within the Brahmapura.

???? ???? ? ?????? ? ???????? ?????? ? ??? ?
????????????? ?????????? ????? ??????????????? ?? – ???????????

Meaning of the verse:  “The offerings (food etc.) made to the brahmins (priests) with the intension being received by the deceased ancestors, after taking into account the aptness of country, time period and place and with complete faith and abiding by all the rules is known as Shraddha.

C: Associated words

Shraddhattva Pinda, Pitru Puja (ritualistic worship of deceased ancestors), Pitru Yagna (sacrificial fires performed for deceased ancestors)

2. ‘Shraddha’ means not just ‘remembering ancestors with a sense of gratitude’, but is also a ritual to be performed.

3. Historical details of the ritual of Shraddha

A. The original concept of performing the ritual of Shraddha was concieved by Sage Atri, the son of Lord Brahma. Sage Atri narrated the ritual of Shraddha as laid down by Lord Brahma to Nimi from his lineage. This established ritual has continued even today.

B. Manu was the first one to perform the ritual of Shraddha. Hence he is called the deity of Shraddha (2).

C. After Lord Ram, Goddess Sita and Lakshman left for their stay in forest, Bharat met them in the forest and apprised them about the death of their father. The epic Ramayana has a mention that Lord Rama later performed the ritual of Shraddha for His deceased father at an appropriate time.

4. Three historically established phases of Shraddha and its nature in the current era

A. Agnoukaran

During the era of Rugveda, deceased ancestors were worshipped by offering Samidha (a kind of wooden stick) and Pinda (a rice bowl) to the sacrificial fire.

B. Pindadaan (worship of Pinda)

The process for Pindadaan is mentioned in the holy scripts of Yajurveda, Bramhane, Shrout and Gruhya sutra. The ritual of Pindadaan was put into practice during the period of Guhya sutra.

The information regarding the time period when the worship of Pinda started is documented in the holy text Mahabharata (Shantiparva 12.3.345) – God Varaha, incarnation of Lord Vishnu, introduced Shraddha to the entire world. He created three Pindas from His molar tooth and placed it on a Darbha (dried grass twig) towards the southern direction. Lord Varaha advised ‘Let the 3 Pindas be considered as a representation of the father, grandfather and great grandfather’ and then He vanished after performing the ritualistic worship of the Pindas using sesame seeds in a scientific manner. Thus began the worship of Pinda for deceased ancestors as per the guidance of Lord Varaha.

C. Offering food to priests (Brahmins)

During the post Gruhya sutra and Shruti-Smruti period, offering food to priests (Brahmins) was considered mandatory and became an important part of the ritual of Shraddha.

D. All the three phases together

In the current era, all the three phases mentioned above are included within the ‘Parvan’ Shraddha. The science of Dharma prescribes that householders should perform the ritual of Shraddha as their duty.

—–
What are the presiding deities and results of Shraddha?

1. Presiding deities of Shraddha

1.1 Pururav-Aardrav and Dhurilochan

Pururav-Aardrav and Dhurilochan are deities of ancestors’ souls. They are referenced in the ritual of Shraddha.

1.2. Vasu-Rudra-Aditya

1.‘Shraddha is associated with the benevolent deities Vasu, Rudra and Aditya of the ancestors’ souls. The mantras chanted during the Shraddha and the rites performed enables one to connect to these deities.’ (6)

2. The deceased person for whom the ritual of Shraddha is being performed, is considered as a follower of Vasu, his parents are considered as followers of Rudra and his grand parents are considered as followers of Aditya. Therefore during Shraddha, the names of father, grandfather and great grandfather (or mother, grandmother and great grandmother) are pronounced as representatives of Vasu-Rudra-Aditya respectively.

2. Types of Shraddha

2.1 Main and commonly known type

Matsya Puran mentions ”?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?’ meaning, primarily there are three types of Shraddha – one performed daily, periodically and with purpose (Kamya). In addition to these, Yamasmruti defines Nandi Shraddha and Parvan Shraddha as additional main types.

2.1.1 Daily Shraddha

The ritual of Shraddha performed daily is known as Daily Shraddha. This Shraddha can be performed just by offering water or sesame seeds to deceased ancestors.

2.1.2 Periodic Shraddha

The shraddha performed for deceased ancestors with a single objective and other such types fall under periodic Shraddha.

2.1.3 Purpose oriented (Kamya) Shraddha

Shraddha performed for achieving a specific objective is termed as purpose oriented (Kamya) Shraddha.

From the point of view of deriving fruitful result, if the Shraddha is performed on a specific day, date (as per Hindu calendar) and taking into consideration the position of stars (nakshatra), then the desired result is achieved.

2.1.4 Nandi Shraddha

The ritual of Shraddha performed during the start of any joyous ceremony and performance of any of the 16 religious rites, and recitation of specific mantras for success of the ceremony is called Nandi Shraddha. In this ritual Satyavasu (or kratudaksha) are the vishve deities and the father-grandfather-great grandfather, mother-grandmother (mother’s mother) – great grandmother (mother’s grandmother) and mother- grandmother (mother’s mother-in-law)-great grandmother (mother-in-law of mother’s mother-in-law) are invoked.

1. Karmanga Shraddha: This Shraddha is performed during the religious ritual of Garbhadhan.

2. Vruddhi Shraddha: Shraddha performed at the time of birth of a baby.

2.1.5 Parvan Shraddha

The Pindapitruyagna (sacrificial fires related to deceased ancestors) mentioned in the Shrout lineage is to be performed by a Sagnik (one who performs the ritual of Agnihotra). Alternative to this is the Parvan Shraddha mentioned in the Gruhya sutras. Once the deceased ancestors get listed as Parvans, then this shraddha is performed for them. (Detailed information on Parvan is presented under the heading ‘Terminology of Shraddha’ and in point ‘3 B’ of volume 2.) Ekparvan (single Parvan), dviparvan (double Parvan), triparvan (triple Parvan) are the three varieties of this shraddha. Mahalay Shraddha and Tirtha Shraddha are the types of Parvan Shraddha.

1. Mahalay Shraddha (fortnightly): It is a Parvan Shraddha performed starting from the eleventh day of dark fortnight of Bhadrapad (Hindu calendar month) till the no moon night.

2. Tirtha Shraddha: The ritual of shraddha performed at Holy places like Prayag or at the banks of a sacred river is termed as Tirtha Shraddha. While performing Tirtha Shraddha, all the Parvans of Mahalay are invoked.

2.2. Other types

Apart from the main types mentioned above there are 96 types of Shraddha namely, 12 no moon nights, 4 eras, 14 manvantars, 12 sankrants, 12 vaidhruti, 12 vyatipat, 15 mahalays, 5 first, 5 ashtak and 5 anvashtake. (Detailed information about these is present in the books related to science of Dharma.)

Brief information about few of the other types of Shraddha

2.2.1. Goshthi Shraddha

The Shraddha performed by the group of priests (Brahmins) and scholars at a holy place with the intention that, ‘Deceased ancestors’ souls should get satisfied and let happiness and prosperity preside’, or while discussing the topic of Shraddha, if one gets inspired all of a sudden and performs Shraddha, then such Shraddha is termed as Goshthi Shraddha.

2.2.2 Shuddhi Shraddha

Offering food to priests (Brahmins) for acquiring purity is called as Shuddhi Shraddha. This is the ‘undergoing of punishment’ part of Shraddha.

2.3.3 Pushti Shraddha

Shraddha performed for increasing physical strength and prosperity is called as Pushti Shraddha.

2.2.4 Ghruta Shraddha (Yatra Shraddha)

Shraddha performed using ghee (clarified butter), in remembrance of deceased ancestors, before embarking on a journey to holy places with the objective of completing the journey without any obstacles is called Ghruta Shraddha.

2.2.5 Dadhi Shraddha

Shraddha performed after returning from a journey to holy places is termed as Dadhi Shraddha.

2.2.6. Ashtaka Shraddha

Shraddha performed on 8th day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu calendar mont. Ashtaka means the 8th day of bright fortnight of any Hindu calendar month. During the era of Vedas, the Ashtaka Shraddha used to be performed specifically on the 8th day of bright fortnight of Margashirsha, Poush, Magh and Falgun months. It was a practice to offer vegetables, meat, bondas, sesame seeds, honey, rice kheer, fruits and underground vegetables to deceased ancestors. Vishvedev, Fire (Agni), Sun, Prajapati, Ratri, Stars (nakshatra), season (rutu) etc. were considered as deities of Shraddha.

2.2.7. Daivik Shraddha

Shraddha performed with the objective of obtaining the grace of God is termed as Daivik Shraddha.

2.2.8. Hiranya Shraddha

This Shraddha is performed without offering food and only by offering money (dakshina) to the priests (Brahmins). If food is in scarcity, then gold, equivalent to four times the cost of the food grains, should be offered.

2.2.9. Hasta Shraddha

Shraddha performed by offering food to the priests (Brahmins) designated for Shraddha. If cooked food is not available then the Shraddha is performed by offering money or dry food grains. (7)

2.2.10. Aatma Shraddha

Those people who do not have children or whose children are atheists, they should perform Shraddha for themselves when they are alive. The rites for such Shraddha are explained in the science of spirituality.

Even though various types of Shraddha are mentioned above, based on the calendar days, the Shraddha performed for a dead person from the first day to the eleventh day, monthly shraddha, Sapindikaran Shraddha, Shraddha performed on one-year completion, Shraddha performed every year from the second year and Mahalay Shraddha are the only ones that are commonly practiced.
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1. Objectives of performing Shraddha

A. Providing momentum to the deceased ancestors present in the Pitru region so that they can progress to a higher sub-plane of existence, through the means of Shraddha.

B. Satisfying wishes and desires of the souls of the deceased ancestors from ones’ family who are trapped in the negative regions due to unfulfilled desires and providing momentum for their further progress.

C. Some deceased ancestors, due to their evil deeds, become ghosts and reside in hell instead of nether region. Through the medium of ritual of Shraddha, one can relieve them from being trapped in this form.

The process through which the above objectives are met through Shraddha is documented under the title ‘Effects of Shraddha’ in Volume 2.

2. Importance and need of performing Shraddha

A. Repaying the debt to ancestors is as important as repaying the debt to God, Sages and the society. It is the duty of descendants to respect their ancestors, make donations in their name and to undertake activities that will please them. Performing Shraddha is a part of obeying Dharma, as per science of Dharma.

B. Ancestors’ soul becomes satisfied only after receiving pinda and water from their son. In relation to this, following is a verse in the holy text Mahabharat that describes ‘who qualifies to be called as son’:

?????????? ?????????????????? ??????? ???: ?
???????????? ??? ???????: ??????? ????????? ??
- Mahabharat 1.74.39

Meaning: The son protects his ancestors’ souls from the Hell named ‘Puta’. Therefore Lord Brahma himself has named him as ‘Putra’.

As per the above verse, to enable the deceased ancestors to progress to a higher sub-plane, to relieve them from experiencing severe and everlasting distress and to initiate them to bestow grace on their descendants, every son should perform ritual of Shraddha. It is amply clear in the verse that the one who is believed to be a son, he should perform these duties.

C.  ?????????????????? ? ??????????? ?
- Taittiriya Upanishad 1.11

Meaning: One should not commit mistakes in any task performed towards God or ancestors’ souls. One should not avoid these rituals.

D. Following verse, regarding people who do not perform Shraddha, in the holy text Gita is insightful

?????? ????? ??????? ???????????????????
- Shrimad bhagwatgita 1.42

Meaning: Due to the nonperformance of rituals like pinda shraddha and offering water to deceased ancestors etc, the ancestors of such people (who do not perform Shraddha) have to reside in the Hell region. This results in stagnation and no progress of the descendants.(?)

E. Sage Sumantu has said, ‘?????????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ?’ , meaning that nothing is as superior as the ritual of Shraddha. Therefore, a person having a pure intellect to discriminate between right and wrong should never abstain from performing Shraddha.

F. Brahmavaivarta Puran says, ‘Activities related to deceased ancestors are more important than those related to God’. Therefore every sacred ceremony begins with Nandi Shraddha.

G. Brahma Puran says, ‘One who performs the ritual of Shraddha diligently and in accordance with ones financial state, he satisfies everyone right from Lord Brahma to the insignificant blade of grass.  No one in the family of the person performing Shraddha remains unhappy.’ (4)

H. If soul of a deceased person wishes that ‘someone should perform Shraddha for me’ and if it does not get fulfilled from the expected descendant, then it becomes unhappy due to non-fulfillment of the desire. Such soul can transform into an evil spirit (a type of negative energy) and cause distress to its relatives for not performing the ritual of Shraddha.

At times, souls of deceased persons manifest in their relatives and they start talking. An example of this is mentioned below:

Once a spirit manifested in a person and then the person started leaping. H.H. Khshirsagar Maharaj from Ahmednagar started a conversation with him and asked, ‘Who are you?’ He answered, ‘I am the father of this person’. Maharaj further asked him, ‘What is purpose of your arrival?’ The father’s soul manifested in the person answered, ‘He does not feed me. He does not perform Shraddha. I am starving.’ (?)

I. At the time of death if a person feels, ‘Shraddha is meaningless and nobody should perform Shraddha for me after my death’ and later because of Shraddha having not been performed, after his death, he experiences that, ‘I am trapped’, even then he cannot convey this feeling to anyone. He could become unhappy because of his wish remaining unfulfilled. Taking this point into consideration, it is absolutely necessary to perform Shraddha for every deceased person.

J. By performing ritual of Shraddha for a deceased person, the give-and-take account that exists with that person gets fulfilled, e.g. if we owe something to a person and he dies before we could repay him, then by the virtue of performing Shraddha the loan can be repaid.

K. In the current age, people do not perform rituals like Shraddha or spiritual practice the way it used to be done earlier. Therefore most of the people experience distress due to unsatisfied ancestors’ souls. Only spiritually evolved (saints) can tell us if we are suffering due to distress caused by ancestors’ souls or if we might face such distress in the future. If it is not possible to take guidance from a spiritually evolved person, then the following problems can be assumed to be caused by ancestors’ souls – regular clashes between the family members, unable to cope up any family member, unemployment, unable to save any money, serious illness, unable to get married in spite of all favorable conditions, unable to cope up with the partner after marriage, unable to conceive, abortion, giving birth to a physically or mentally handicapped baby and developing addictions.  By performing Shraddha one gets relieved from the distress caused by the deceased ancestors since the deceased ancestors get satisfied and if they are trapped in a particular region, they get momentum to progress to a higher sub-planes and in turn the descendents are able to obtain their blessings.

(Spiritual experiences related to ‘Unsatisfied ancestors’ souls causing distress to their family members and the effect getting nullified after performing Shraddha’ and ‘Obtaining assistance and blessings from deceased ancestors’ souls’ are given in point 19, along with the ‘Importance of chanting the Name of Lord Datta, in a manner which is equivalent to performing the ritual of Shraddha, in reference to providing momentum to the ancestors’ souls and to protect oneself from the distress caused by the unsatisfied ancestors’ souls’)

3. Benefits of performing Shraddha

A. The ritual of Shraddha is sacrificial fire performed for deceased ancestors and it is a sacred, beneficial bestows blessings for conceiving a baby boy. The benefits derived after performing the ritual of Shraddha are mentioned in Smrutichandrika and other holy texts in the form of a verse as follows:

???: ???????? ??: ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????: ?
????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????????? ??????????? ??

Meaning: One can conceive a baby boy and acquire a long life, success, heaven, fame, strength, wealth, animals, happiness, food, etc. by worshipping (performing Shraddha for) deceased ancestors.

B. If the ritual of Shraddha is performed on the day of an eclipse, the host derives benefit similar to the one obtained after donating a piece of land to someone. (5)

C. Refer to the items B, G and K within point 6. ‘Importance and need of performing Shraddha’ and point 9 A 3. ‘Shraddha done for a purpose’
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When should the Shraddha be performed?

1. In general appropriate dates for performing shraddha

Normally, no moon night, 12 sankrants in a year, solar-lunar eclipses, Yugadhi and Manvadi dates, Ardhodayadi parva, date of death, arrival of Shrotriya priests (Brahmins) etc dates are considered appropriate for performing shraddha.

2. Hindu Dharma does not give any chance to anyone to say that the shraddha was not performed due to non-feasibility in a particular period!

Normally every year Shraddha should be performed on the date of death of the person (as per the Hindu calendar and not as per the English calendar.) If the date is not known and only the month is known, then in that case the shraddha can be performed on the no moon night of that month.

If both, the date as well as the month is unknown then the shraddha can be performed on the no moon night of the Hindu calendar month of Magh or Margashirsha.

If the definite date of death is not known then the shraddha can be performed on the date when the news of the death was received.

Shraddha for deceased ancestors’ souls should be performed everyday and it can be achieved just by offering water (tarpan) to them.

If it is impossible to perform Shraddha daily, then Darsha Shraddha should be performed. This fulfills the requirement of doing the Shraddha daily. Darsha means no moon night. Therefore Darsha Shraddha is the one, which is performed on the no moon night of every month.

If it is not possible to perform Darsha Shraddha every month, one should at least perform it on the no moon night of Hindu calendar months of Chaitra, Bhadrapad and Ashwin months.

If it is not possible even to perform Darsha Shraddha on no moon nights of Chaitra, Bhadrapad and Ashwin, then at least the ritual of Mahalaya should be performed in the Pitru fortnight of the month of Bhadrapad. If this too is impossible then Shraddha should be performed on the no moon night of the month of Bhadrapad (sarva pitri amavasya) (11)

(Hindu Dharma has kept so many provisions to act in a righteous manner. In spite of this, Hindus do not perform Shraddha and other rituals. Then who will help such Hindus? – Compiler.)
3. Appropriate time of the day

If the day is divided into 5 parts, then the fourth part is called the ‘Aparanha’ period. This period is most appropriate for performing shraddha.
4. Special dates for performing Shraddha and the benefits derived after performing shraddha for deceased ancestors’ souls on these dates

4.1 Kalpadi date (tithi): Lord Brahma’s day is considered as the day of origin. This is also called as Kalpadi tithi. The 1st and 5th day of Chaitra, 3rd day of Vaishakh, 7th day of Kartik, 9th day of Margashirsha, 13th day of Magh, 3rd day of Falgun (all days from the bright fortnight) indicate the start of the era (kalpa). As per the science, if shraddha is performed on these dates, the deceased ancestors’ souls get satisfied.

4.2 Akshayya Trutiya (3rd day within the bright fortnight of Vaishakh): Akshayya Trutiya indicates the start of the Kruta era. The benefits derived by performing rituals like Shraddha, Tarpan for deceased ancestors’ souls and donations on this date is everlasting. Therefore one should at least perform Apinda Shraddha or Tarpan for their deceased ancestors’ souls.

The holy texts of Puranas say that, on the day of Akshayya Trutiya one should donate uncooked food (aamanna), a water pot, a fan made of mint grass, an umbrella, footwear etc with the intension of offering them to the deceased ancestors’ souls. It is mentioned in Garud Puran that, once the donations are made with the intention of offering them to deceased ancestors’ souls on this day, the messengers of Lord Yama do not cause distress to the ancestors’ souls.

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? ??????? ??????????????????? ???????? ??

Meaning: When clothes and ornaments are donated, the dark, brown eyed, cruel messengers of Lord Yama having sharp and long teeth do not cause distress to the deceased ancestors’ souls.

4.3 Pitru fortnight (Pitrupaksha) (Mahalaypaksha)

4.3.1 Importance

1. The dark fortnight in the Hindu calendar month of Bhadrapad is called as ‘Pitrupaksha’. This fortnight is very dear to the deceased ancestors’ souls. If Mahalay Shraddha is performed for the deceased ancestors’ souls during this fortnight, they remain satisfied for the entire year.

2.   ???????? ???????? ???? ?? ? ???????? ????????? ?
??? ??????? ??????? ??????????????????? ??
?????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ?
?????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????????????? ??
- Mahabharat

Meaning: The householder who does not perform shraddha during the period when the Sun is in the Virgo sign, how will he earn money and be gifted with a baby boy as he would have enraged the deceased ancestors’ souls? Additionally, the abode for deceased ancestors’ souls remains vacant till the Sun moves from Virgo and Libra sign to the Scorpio sign.  The abode for deceased ancestors’ souls remaining vacant during this period implies that the deceased ancestors’ souls come closer to their descendants for blessing them and if Shraddha is not performed, they give curse to their descendants and return. Due to this it is important to perform Shraddha during this period.

The deceased ancestors that arrive at the occasion of Mahalay Shraddha

1. Father, grandfather, great grandfather (Pitrutrayi)
2. Mother, grandmother and great grandmother (matrutrayi)
3. Step mother
4. Mother’s father, grandfather and great grandmother (matamahatrayi)
5. Mother’s mother, grandmother and great grandmother
6. Wife        7. Sons
8. Daughters        9. Paternal cousins

10. Maternal uncle        11. Brother
12. Father’s sisters      13. Mother’s sisters
14. Sisters               15. Father-in-law
16. Other relatives
17. Guru (if the Guru-disciple relationship exists)
18. Disciple (if the Guru-disciple relationship exists)
—–

When can Females perform Shraddha?

1. Importance of performing Shraddha by oneself

‘Ideally, the host should perform the ritual of Shraddha by himself. However, since we do not know how to perform it, we get it done through the priest (Brahmin). Nowadays, it has become difficult to get priests for performing Shraddha. As a solution to this, one can procure the holy texts that describe the ritual and learn it by heart. This text is in Sanskrit. Akin to learning other languages, one should also try and learn Sanskrit, which is considered to be God’s language. Also, it is easy to learn Sanskrit.

(Although the point mentioned above is correct, considering the complexity in pronouncing certain Sanskrit words and limitation to understand the rites mentioned in the science, it may not be possible for everyone to perform the ritual as prescribed, by themselves. In such cases one can get the ritual performed through priests and if they are not available, then the ritual can be performed with the help of knowledgeable people in society. One should remember that making the ritual of shraddha is more important – Compiler).

2. Hindu Dharma that does not give any cause for excuse for not performing shraddha due to the absence of a particular person!

Son (including the one whose threading ceremony has not been done), daughter, grandson, great grandson, wife, daughter’s son (if he is one of the heirs), real brother, nephew, cousin’s son, father, mother, daughter-in-law, son of elderly and younger sisters, maternal uncle, anyone in the seven generations and from the same lineage (sapinda), anyone after the seven generations and belonging to the same family domain (samanodak), disciple, priests (upadhyay), friend, son-in-law of the deceased person can perform Shraddha in that order.

In case of a joint family, the eldest and earning male person should perform Shraddha. In case of the unit family, everyone should perform shraddha independently. (9)

Hindu Dharma has made arrangement so that for each and every dead person the shraddha can be performed so as to give momentum to that person to progress to a higher sub-plane. Holy text Dharma Sindhu mentions that, ‘If a particular dead person does not have any relative or a close person, then it is the duty of the king to perform Shraddha for that person’.

(In spite of numerous avenues being available, Hindus do not perform shraddha. Then, who will help such Hindus? – Compiler)

3. Performance of Shraddha by females

1. In point 2 it is mentioned that the daughter, wife, mother and daughter-in-law of the deceased person have the authority to perform Shraddha. In spite of this, in the current era, the priests who conduct Shraddha deny their consent for females to perform Shraddha. This could be because in the earlier days the thread ceremony was  performed for females, and in current era, this practice has been discontinued in all classes. Therefore, in accordance to that, even performing of Shraddha has been disallowed for females. In emergency conditions, however, if no one is available for performing Shraddha, then it is better for it to be performed by females instead of not performing it at all.

2. The female performing shraddha should place a clean cotton cloth on her shoulder while performing ‘Savya-Apasavya’

Source:

http://www.hindujagruti.org/hinduism/knowledge/

http://www.spiritual-wholeness.org/faqs/reincgen/hindrein.htm

1. Introduction
Before we turn to the specific theme of reincarnation in Hinduism, [l] think it important to specify very briefly what do we intend by Hinduism and Reincarnation in general.

1.1 Hinduism
Hinduism is not just a single religion, but a “mosaic of religion”, within which we can find most elementary superstitions and mythologies, from the cult of inanimate objects, like stones, rivers, planets to animate objects, like trees, animals, heroes, dead ancestors and spirits; at the same time it presents itself as a fertile field for a most elevated mysticism, which seeks to reach not only the union of the soul with a personal God, the creator and governor of the universe, but even to overcome this dualistic attitude by “realizing” one’s identity with the Absolute Spirit. Hinduism, we can say, is the global expression of the religiosity of the peoples of India, which again is a “museum of humanity”‘.

Hinduism does not have a historical founder, nor does it have a central authority for defining or imposing its beliefs and practices. Hinduism does not insist on many dogmas; regarding God, a Hindu can be believer of monotheism or polytheism or pantheism or monism or even atheism (for example the orthodox Hindu schools of Samkhya and Mimamsa explain everything, including the liberation of the soul without being preoccupied about the existence of God). Hence it is almost impossible to define Hinduism. However we can gather some principles and common practices which go to make Hinduism. They are: (i) faith in the infallible authority of the Vedas (most important sacred scriptures of Hinduism), (ii) faith in the continuous creation, conservation and dissolution of the universe in a cyclic form, (iii) faith in the transmigration of the souls according to the law of eternal retribution (karma-samsara), (iv) faith in the final liberation of the soul from the chains of transmigration (multi, moksha), and (v) the observance of the law of the caste and of the stages of life (varnasrama~harma) [2]

Historians divide Hinduism into (i) Vedism, religion based on the first part (stage) of the Vedas, called Samhita (1500-1000 BC), (ii) Brahminism, the second phase of the evolution of the vedic religion, based on the second part of the Vedas, called Brahmana (1000-800 BC), (iii) Upanishad (or Vedantism), the third phase, based on the last part of the Vedas, called Upanishad (800-300 BC); towards the end of this period only did the various philosophical schools of Hinduism arose (the six principal orthodox systems being, Nyaya, Vaiseshika, SamkAya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta, and the three heterodox being, Buddhism, Jainism and Carvaka), (iv) religious or popular Hinduism (especially the three main religious sects: Vishnuism, Sivaism and Sakitism), which is the religion of the masses, more simple and primitive, notably inspired by the simple and mythological religions of the original inhabitants of India, the Dravidians, and is based mainly on bhakti (loving devotion) which forms the central religious theme of the main smriti (tradition) literature, especially the great epics of Mahabharata (4th century BC to 4th century AD) and Ramayana (4th century BC?), Bhagavat Gita (between the 5th and 2nd century BC), Puranas (considered to be the Veda of the common people), Sutra and Dharmashastra (the code of laws) and (v) neo-lnduisn? (renewed Hinduism after the 19th century) .

1.2 Reincarnation
The doctrine of reincarnation, known also with other terms like, rebirth, transmigration of the soul, metempsychosis (or more accurately, metensomatosis, “passage from one body to another”), palingenesis (Gr., lit., “to begin again”), concerns the rebirth of the soul or self in a series of physical or preternatural embodiments, which are customarily human or animal in nature but are in some instances divine, angelic, demonic, vegetative, or astrological. [3]  The belief in rebirth in one form or another existed and is still found in tribal or non-literate cultures all over the world, which go to prove that this belief arouse contemporaneously with the origins of human culture per se. [4]

However it is in India and Greece that the doctrine of rebirth has been most elaborately developed. This belief is shared by all the other major religions of India, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gains, Sikhs and Sufis. [In ancient Greece, belief in rebirth formed part of the philosophical teachings of Pythagorean, Empodocles, Plato, and Plotinus. In modern times, religious teachers like Ramakrishna, Aurobindo or schools of thought, like Theosophy or various new "esoteric" "occultist" religious movements, like New Age or humanistic psychology: thinkers like C. G. Jung and Fritz Perls, hold onto belief in reincarnation.]

All the diverse religious groups and philosophical schools of Hinduism, except that of Carvaka, totally materialistic, believe in reincarnation. However, it should be noted that belief in reincarnation is not the basic teaching or the end of their religious cult and practices. Instead, it is deliverance from the chain of reincarnation (karma-samsara) and reaching moksha, the unique and final goal of every Hindu religious belief, cult and practices.

2. Reincarnation in Hinduism in General

2.1 Karma: the Cause of Reincarnation
According to the Hindu religious and philosophical concepts, man is composed of two fundamental principles opposed to each other per nature: one spiritual, the soul (atman), and the other material, the body (sarira). The atman is eternal, immutable, not born, not created, indestructible; instead, the body is temporal, created, mutable, destructible. The union between atman and body is not essential, but is accidental It is a type of imprisonment or a penalty which the atman has to undergo due to avidya and karma, to which it is associated from all eternity. Avidya and karma are two basic presuppositions of Hinduism. They have no beginning because they did not have a beginning. It is therefore a truth that transcends every intellectual explanation.

Avidya signifies ignorance, ignorance of the true nature of atman or of the distorted vision in which the atman identifies itself or confounds itself with the psycho-physical organism. Due to avirlya, the atman which is eternal and non-temporal, is caught up in time; gets joined to physical body. Birth is the union of the eternal and spiritual atman with the material and temporal body. [5]

2.2 Karma-Samsara
The nature of birth, that is, the condition of the body to which the atman gets united, depends on karma. Karma (Pali, Kamma, Tib., las; Chin., yeh or yin-k1lo; Jpn., go or inga), based on the Sanskrit verbal root he, signifies action, every sort of action, whether good or bad, meritorious or non-meritorious, religious or worldly; here, however, karma signifies the moral debit of the actions which one has done. Every action inevitably produces its own fruit (phala), and the subject (actor) has necessarily to experience all the consequences of his own actions. A person’s behavior leads irrevocably to an appropriate reward or punishment commensurate with that behavior.[6]  It is the inevitable law of retribution or the law of karma. It is the law of cause and effect applied to the life of every individual, law according to which every one gathers the fruit of what one has sowed or undergoes the effect of his own actions.

The effects of all the actions which a person does cannot be experienced (lived) during one single existence, because while the subject (actor) experiences the fruit of some act, does other actions in the meantime, and therefore gains new fruits which have to be experienced. From this fact is deduced that the atman (soul) has to be reborn repeatedly. So it is believed that the soul from all eternity is undergoing birth and rebirth due to this inviolable law of karma. Thus is born the doctrine of the transfiguration of the soul. It is a corollary of the doctrine of karma.

The entire process of reincarnation of the soul according to the law of karma is called Karma-samsara. Samsara means “to wander or pass through a series of states or conditions.” Samsara is the beginning-less cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, a process impelled by karma. [8]  Life, therefore, is not determined or limited to one birth and one death, but is instead a samsara, a current, a course, a migration in circle, which however is always determined by the law of karma. In short, human life is a karma-samsara, a transmigration of the soul according to the inevitable law of retribution.

2.3 The Subtle Body
In order to explain how the effects of past actions of man are preserved in the atman after the death of the body and how these effects produce their fruit in a future rebirth, the Hindu theologians make a distinction between two types of body: the gross body (sthula-sarira) and the subtle body (sukshma-sarira or linga- sarira). [9] The gross body is that which is visible and tangible, consists of the eternal senses, of organs, etc. The subtle body, instead, is not visible nor tangible, and is composed of subtle elements, like: budclhi (intelligence), manas (mind), ahamkara (ego), etc. [10]  The subtle body encircles the atman and se~ves as a connection between the soul and the gross body. Every action of man leaves its imprint (samskara) on the subtle body and remains as a seed which has to mature and produce in due time its proper fruit. [11]  While the gross body disintegrates at death, the spirit continues to be in contact with the subtle psychic body which it carries forward. The subtle body together with all the tendencies, merits or effects of karma is said to migrate with the soul (atman) at death.

3. The Transmigration of Soul in Vedism and Brahminism

Although transmigration is a fundamental teaching of Hinduism and has an extraordinarily firm hold on the mind of the people of India, not only Hindus, but also of Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs, the origin of the doctrine of transmigration is one of the most difficult problems of Indian Philosophy.[12]  The theory of reincarnation (rebirth) does not appear in the Vedas. The seeming references to transmigration which have been seen in the Rigveda are all of the most improbable character. [13]  The Vedic religion did not have this belief. Instead the theory of re-death (punarmyrtyu, new death) appears at a very early stage in the Vedas. In fact the ideas about death predate and predetermine the theory of birth. [14]  SO also the idea of karma (in its broader sense which includes the concept of”ment transfer”) present in the Vedas, preceded the idea of rebirth. [15] In this W. D. O’Flaherty is in agreement with David M. Knipe, who, analyzing the funeral rites of sraddha [16] and sapindikarana [17], comes to the conclusion that the theory of karma (“which includes the idea of merit transfer”) preceded that of rebirth or reincarnation. Such rites were expressions of the desire of the Vedic and pre-Vedic man and performed to “prevent the dissolution of an after-life for the deceased” [18]. The offering of ritual food for the deceased ancestors suggest the desire of the ritual performer to keep them there, in a place of happiness (heaven) or limbo, and the desire to prevent them from suffening “repeated death (punarmrtyu)”. All the karma texts begin with death and then proceed to describe birth.

3.1 In Rig Veda
The Rig Veda, the first book of the Vedas (1200 BCE), speaks of death and immortality, rather than rebirth. The problem is the fear of death which is inevitable; something that has to be, therefore, avoided as long as possible. Speaking of the Creator, the poet says, “His shadow is immortality and death” (Rig Vecia 10.121.2) and prays: “Deliver me from death, not from immortality” (Rig Veda 7.59.12). And what comes after death? Rig Veda offers various images of a vague but pleasant life after death. [19]

One funeral hymn addresses the dead man:
Go forth, go forth on those ancient paths on which our ancient fathers passed beyond… Unite with the fathers, with Yama [king of the dead], with the rewards of your sacrifices and good deeds, in the highest heaven. Leaving behind all imperfections, go back home again; merge with a glorious body (Rig Veda 10.14.7-8). [20]

Life in the reign of Yama together with the fathers with a glorious body is the desire and hope of the Vedic man.

Another hymn is addressed to the funeral fire, Agni:
Do not burn him entirely, Agni, or engulf him in your flames. Do not consume his skin or his flesh. When you have cooked him perfectly, only then send him forth to the fathers (Rig Veda 10.16. 1) [21]

This hymn expresses the desire and hope that, after the purification through fire, Agni, the dead person receives his body back, made perfect, so as to enjoy the life of the fathers.

Other hymns speak to the dead man, of the final dispersal of his old body:
May your eye go to the sun, your life’s breath to the wind. Go to the sky or to earth, as is your nature; or go to the waters, if that is your fate. Take root in the plants with your limbs (Rig Veda 10. 16.3).[22]

Another hymn addresses the dead:
Creep away to this broad, vast earth, the mother that is kind and gentle.

And to the earth:
Open up, earth; do not crush him. Be easy for him to enter and to burrow. . Earth, wrap him up as a mother wraps a son in the edge of her skirt (Rig Veda 10.18.10-l l) [23]

From these and other texts in Rig Veda it can be concluded that in this primitive phase of religion (Vedism) there are various and diverse ways of considering death and the fate of man after his death, which seem to represent some sort of rebirth, which consist in the ‘putting on’ of a glorious body or getting a purified body made perfect by Agni and living happily with the ancestors in the reign of the death; or in the dispersion of the old body in cosmic elements or in returning to the loving womb of mother earth. However, none of these texts speak explicitly that the dead man has to be reborn on the earth in any form.[24]

3.2 In Brahmana Veda
The texts of Brahmanas (900 BC) on the whole do not contain the doctrine of transmigration. In these texts too, the atman longs for the world of the fathers, for immortality, as in Rig Veda. The problem here too is not that of reincarnation or rebirth, but that of death, which is far more explicitly feared: Death is evil, and the essence of evil is death. The central preoccupation of the Brahmans, is therefore, the fear of death and the obsessive search for rituals that can overcome it. [25] Not only can the gods become immortal, but also the sacrificer, in fact, “becomes immortal” (Sathapatha Brahmana 2. 2.2.14).

Perhaps the earliest foreshadowing of the doctrine of transmigration is to be found in the Satapata Brahmana, 10.4.3.1-10 This text, however, does not explicitly refer to transmigration. What the authors of the Brahmanas were searching was not rebirth, but liberation from the inevitable problem of death, which is the greatest of all evils. What they feared was not life but death, “old age and death” (janamrtyu), and more precisely ‘recurring death’ or ‘re-death’ (punarmrtyu).[26] The fear that in place of the desired immortality in the next world (of the Fathers), there will be renewed death,[27] and as a consequence the turning to performing many rites, like Agnihotra, the Visuvant, the Naciketas fire, the piling of the fire, the study of the Veda, etc., which are to save them from suffering ‘repeated deaths’. [28] The repeated death refers to death in the next world, not in this: it is applied to the Fathers (Satapata Brahmana, 12. 9.3.12), and from those who are born after death to immortality are distinguished those who are born to die again (Satapata Brahmana, iO. 4.3.iO). The idea that death is a birth (a passage to3 in the next world is not at all rare and the conception that death might there be repeated is a very natural one.29 But the idea of rebirth (transmigration) on the earth was the innovation of the Upanishads.

4. Transmigration of Soul in the Upanishads
Also the Upanishads (composed from 700 BC) speak of renewed death (punnarmyrtyu) much before they began speaking of rebirth (punarjanma). However, the problem that the authors of the Upanishads confronted was self-realization, liberation or happiness (moksha). According to the Upanishads, our life is chaos, a dream, while death is order, sleep without dreams because it is final liberation from life, is attaining moksha, which is possible even during the earthly existence, by means of yoga, and consists in the realization of Atman is Brahman.

The clear and explicit mention of the doctrine of transmigration is to be found in the Upanishads. The earliest mention is found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. “A man becomes good by good works, evil by evil’ (3. 2.13) and on death, like a caterpillar -or a grass leech – proceeding from one leaf to another, the soul (atman), having shaken off the body and freed itself from ignorance, presumably empirical life, makes a beginning on another body. As a goldsmith forms newer and fairer form from a rough nugget, so the soul fashions for itself another newer, fairer form (4. 4.4), whether it be of the Fathers, or the Gandharvas, or the gods, or Prajapati, or Brahman, or other living beings; just as man acts, just as he behaves, so will he be born. He who does good will be born good, he who does evil will be born evil: he becomes holy by holy deeds, evil by evil (Brahadaranyaka Upanishad 4. 4.2-6; 4. 3 33).

The Chandogya Upanishad 30 speaks of the intimate relation that exits between conduct or action and the condition of rebirth. Human destinies are assigned to two divergent pathways: the pathway of the gods (devas) and the pathway of the fathers or ancestors (pitrs). Those who meditate and practice asceticism follow the pathway of the gods, which leads them (atman) to liberation, to union with Brahman. They are freed forever from the chain of karma-samsara; they will not be reborn. Instead those who walk the normal worldly pursuits follow the pathway of the ancestors, which leads them to rebirth, after having resided in the postmortem realm which lasts as long as the effects of their previous actions have been consumed. If one’s good karma predominates over his bad karma, then the soul goes first to hell (place of suffering and purification) for a short period to pay (expiate) his bad karma and then goes to heaven for a longer period, where he enjoys the fruits of his good karma. If, instead, the bad karma predominates, then the soul goes first for a short period to heaven to enjoy the fruits of his good karma and then goes to hell for a longer period, in order to expiate his bad karma. In both the cases, once the two types of karma are consumed, the soul reincarnates in a place of life determined by the original equilibrium between good karma and bad karma.

According to the Upanishads rebirth or reincarnation of the souls can take place in a series of physical bodies (normally in human bodies but also in animals and even plants) or in a series of astral and preternatural bodies (sun, moon, planets, stars, angels or demons), depending on one s karma. The Kaushitaki Upanishad expresses it more clearly: “He is reborn here either as a worm, or as a butterfly, or as a fish, or as a bird, or as a lion, or as a serpent, or as a tiger, or as a person, or as some other being in this or in that condition, according to his works, according to his knowledge” (1.2)

From the beginning, however, the idea of transmigration was immediately followed by two other ideas: that it was possible for some to be freed of it, and that it was desirable for some to be freed of it. But at the same time, according to some texts of the Upanishads, there was the possibility that some do not want to get out of the chain of transmigration: when the soul of the dead reaches the moon, it can choose to continue in the process of rebirth or be freed of it completely (moksha), and the text affirms that some choose to be reborn (Kaushitaki Upanishad 1.1-7). These two possible options give rise to discussion as to whether it is good or bad to be in the wheel of transmigration.[31]

5. Transmigration of Soul in the Popular Religions

5.1 In the Bhagavat Gita
According to the teachings of the Gita the atman is spiritual, imperishable and eternal as god himself is eternal; it is neither born nor can it die. Regarding atman, the Gita aff~rms: “Of the nonexistent there is no coming to be; of the existent, there is not coming not to be” (2.11-25). It cannot be affected even to the slightest degree by the vicissitudes of finite existence. It is rather the body (sarira) or the embodied form (jiva) of the self that is subject to the changing conditions of life, viz., creation and destruction, good and evil, victory and defeat.[32]  Karma affects only the jiva, and the soul (atma”) passes from body to body in the successive reincarnations. “Just as man takes off his old clothes in order to put on new ones, so does the one (soul) who lives in the body, by abandoning the old form, enters into other forms prepared for it” (2.22).

Krishna, the god-incarnate, declares, however, that one should not be sad over the necessity of being born again, because it is the inviolable law, from which even the gods are not exempt. “Just as death is certain for all that is born, so is certain birth for all that dies” (2.26-27).

The Gita affirms that one who does good works will be born in a good family of saints and spiritual men, and after having reached perfection through various rebirths, he will reach his final goal (moksha) [33]

5.2 In the Puranas
The Puranas (500-1000 AD) contain a series of myths (narratives) regarding reincarnation. One series of myths pits death against withdrawal from life altogether. Thus, for example, Siva (the god of ascetics and yogis) on being asked by the Creator to create living creatures, refuses to create since living creatures would be subject to re-death. Siva, instead, wants to create immortals, which the Creator refuses [34].

The Puranas contain answers, which are at times ambivalent and contradictory, to questions that one normally asks regarding death and rebirth: why is there so much of fear in front of death, if the atman is eternal and immortal? What happens to the soul at after death? Where does it go? What is the state of the soul after death? Where and how is it reborn? Has his relatives any role in its rebirth?, etc.

5.2.1 The Process of Death
The great fear in front of death, the processes of death and birth are discussed in great detail in the Puranas; they begin with death and then proceed to birth.

The sages asked Vyasa, “Who is the companion of a dying man, his father or mother or son or teacher, his crowd of friends and relations? When he leaves the body that has been his house as if it were a house of wood or mud, and goes into the world beyond, who follows him?” The sage vyasa replied, “Alone he is born, and alone he dies; alone he crosses the dangerous thresholds, without the companionship of father, mother, brother, son or teacher, without his crowd of friends and relations. When he leaves the dead body, for a brief moment he weeps, and then he turns his face away and departs. When he leaves the body, dharma alone follows him; if he has dharma he goes to heaven, but if he has adharma he goes to hell. Earth, wind, space, water, light, mind, intelligence, and the self (atman) – these are the witnesses that watch constantly over the dharma of creatures that breath on earth; together with them, dharma follows the jiva. Skin, bone, flesh, semen and blood leave the body when it is lifeless; but the jiva that has dharma prospers happily in this world and the world beyond.” [35]

Another version of this text is rendered as follows: “his relatives turn away and depart, but dharma follows him…The body is burnt by fire, but the karma he has done goes with him”. [36] If dharma is one’s karma, then the jive (subtle body) goes to heaven and realizes to be atman. If, instead, his karma is adharma, then he goes to hell.

At death the atman takes on the subtle body (diva) in order to experience the fruits of karma. Jiva is the carrier of the karmic deposit; it does not get destroyed in the blazing fire of hell nor does it get destroyed by any created instrument or by the elements of nature [37]. [Jiva is at times identified with the linga-sarira and is also called the ativahika body, the body "swifter than wind".[38] But the ativahika body is impure and eats on the pinda offered by his relatives, after which the jiva abandons the ativahika body and assumes a preta body. Then after the sapindikarana rite has been performed, the jiva abandons his preta body and gets an experience body (hhoga-deha). The experience body has two forms: one good, which experience the fruit of its good acts and the other bad, which experiences the evil fruit accumulated according to his karma and then he transmigrates [39].

Thus the man of mixed karma has one experience body in heaven and another one in hell; if evil predominates, apparently he goes first to hell, then to heaven, and then from hell to an animal womb; if good predominates, he goes first to heaven, then to hell, and then from heaven again to a good birth among humans.

5.2.2 The Process of Birth
The process of birth is determined by one’s karma. In the early texts the process of birth is merely described, and not explained:

When he has suffered through all the hells, the sinner, through the ripening of his own karma that he committed even while inside another body, enters the animal creation, among wonns, insects, and birds; among wild animals, mosquitoes, and so forth; among elephants, trees [sic], cattle, and horses, and other evil and harmfull creatures. Then he is born as a man, a contemptible one like a hunchback or a dwarf; among Candalas, Pullkasas, and so forth. And then, accompanied by his remaining sins and merits, he enters the classes in ascending order – Sudra, Vaisya, king, and so forth – and then he becomes a Brahmin, a god, and an Indra. But sometimes he does it in descending order, and evil-doers fall down into hell” [40].

Jiva (the subtle body which is attached to atman) is born as man, when a woman gets impregnated by a man.

Impregnation of a woman by a man takes place when the seed is placed in her blood; as soon as it is discharged from heaven or hell, it sets out…. The embryo remembers its many transmigrations, and it is distressed because of this one and that one, and therefore it becomes depressed[41].

At the time of the faIling of the seed of the man, a portion of the jiva (,/ivarmsa) grows in the pregnant womb, by means of blood. From the entry of the man’s jiva into the womb, flesh accrues [42].

Here it is apparent that the jiva is given by the man and nourished by the woman, a view upheld in most of the medical and legal texts. Other Puranas indicate a more equal division of responsibility between man and woman: “… In the union of a woman and a man he is born” [43].

In the womb of the mother, the jiva remembers all its past lives and his karmas, both good and bad, the joys and sorrows of his previous actions, but at birth it is deluded by the force of maya and forgets his former lives. Thus the newborn child is unaware of his accumulated karma, but is predetermined by his karma: “By his own karmas a creature becomes a god, man, animal, bird, or immovable thing”.[44]  “By good deeds one becomes a god; by bad deeds a creature is born among animals and by mixed deeds, a mortal. The Veda (sruti) is the authority for the distinction between nrmn and ndharma ” [45]

It is therefore jiva which has still to pay its adharma (karma) that incarnates or transmigrates as man. Consciousness (caitanya), desire, thought are inherent in the jiva which takes a material form in the womb of a woman [46].

5.2.3 The Role of the Parents in the Process of Rebirth
According to Garuda Purana, it is not the karma or the jiva alone that determines birth and nature but the consciousness of the father at the time of impregnation. “Whatever a man has on his mind at the time of impregnation, a creature born of such a nature (svabhava) will enter the womb’, [47]

This, naturally, brings up the question of the role of the karma of the parents in the process of rebirth. The Puranas state that the child’s birth is affected by the karma of the father and the mother;[48]  similarly, the embryo’s physical makeup is contributed by both parents: the mother gives hair, nails, skin, flesh and the father gives bone, sinew, and marrow[49]. The actual mechanism of this karmic transfer during the process of birth is not explained in the Puranas, but the effect of it is certainly taken for granted; and the transfer of karma in the opposite direction (from child to parent) takes place often during life and after the death of the parent.

Both in the Mahabharata and in the Puranas, we find myths illustrative of the karma flow in both directions: from living children to dead ancestors (as in the tale of a sage’s ancestors hanging by their fingertips in a great pit – Mahabharata 3.94-97); and, less often, from parents to children. [A series of karmic transfers from children to parents takes place between King Yayati and his sons and grandsons.[50]  In the myth of Vena, karma flows in both directions: the evil of Vena himself is the result of the direct transfer of negative karma from his evil mother – who is evil because of the karma inherited from her father, death;[51] but when Vena dies, and is reborn as a leper, his good son Prthu saves him by going to a shrine, performing a ritual, and transferring that merit to his father, for his father is so impure that he would transfer his own bad karma to the shrine and thus defile it; only the devotional sacrifice of the son can save him.[52] In other texts, Vena is saved simply by the birth of his good son,[53] or, in a more primitive process, by the birth of an evil son, who draws the evil out of Vena in a direct transfer,[54] as the evil demon drew the evil nature out of the Brahmin’s wife. Thus evil karma is transferred from parent to child in a direct line, thus explaining the existence of evil in the present; good karma is transferred backwards into the past and into the future, through the heteropathic devotion of the good child to the evil parent – the ritual model of the sraddha offering, translated into bhakti mythology.]

5.2.4 The Role of Fate in Rebirth
A child’s birth is affected not only by the karma of the jiva and of the parents, but also by other factors, among which fate plays an important role. “By karma impelled by fate a creature is born in the body; taking refuge in a drop of the seed of a man he enters the belly of a woman”. Yet karma and fate are often said to work together, or even to be the same[55]. [In a myth found in the Lingua Purana, a sage tries to dissuade Parasara from killing all the demons in order to avenge his father's murder by them: "The demons did not hurt your father; it was fated to happen to him in this way. Who is killed by whom? A man experiences (the fruits of) his own deeds" [56].

Or again, in the Bhagavata Purana we find a similar myth, where a sage tries to dissuade Dhruva from killing all the Yaksas in order to avenge his brother’s murder by them. The Yaksas did not actually kill his brother, but it was fate that he should have got killed. The cause of man’s birth or death or fate.

[''The Lord ordains the increase or decrease in the life span of a miserable creature. Some say this is karma; others that it is one's own nature; others that it is time; others that it is fate; and others that it is desire. The servants of Kubera, the Yaksas, were not the slayers of your brother; the cause of a man's birth and death is fate [daiva: Sridhara glosses it as Isvaral. He creates this universe, and keeps it, and kills it; but because he has no egoism, he is not affected by karmas or qualities [gunas]” [57].

Although gods, on the whole, are free of k;arma [58], they come under the sway of fate. Krishna performed all his great manly deeds Epaurusa] by the power of predestination [bhavivasat][59]. But very often fate and karma are taken to mean the same thing, especially when referred to the gods, either when evoked as an excuse for weakness or failure on their part[60]  or to escape punishment[61]. These apparently conflicting attitudes to the fate and karma of the gods may be somewhat clarified when one realizes that Sridhara is talking about God, the absolute, who is regarded as being either above fate or identical with it, and that the others are merely lower-case gods, who are helpless against fate and karma.

If God controls fate and the gods are controlled by it, then nothing can be done against fate, it would seem. It is not so, because in the Puranas we have many examples of those who challenge fate and also overcome fate.

Thus, for example, when the wicked Kamsa learns that he is “fated” to be killed by a child of Devaki, he boasts, “This is a matter that concerns mere mortals, and so it can be accomplished by us though we are mortal. It is known that people like me can overcome fate and turn it to advantage by the right combination of spells, and herbal medicines, and constant effort” [62]. Of course Kamsa had no luck, because the child fated to kill him was none other than Krishna, no “mere mortal” and so accepted the fact that he could not overcome his fate by mere human effort. Or we have the case of Devaki and Vasudeva, who make an effort to save their last son, Krishna and their effort is crowned with success, which goes to prove the efficacy of human effort over fate.

l”Men must experience the karma that was formerly made, but can that not be worn away by pilgrimages, asceticism, and gifts? For the rites of expiation has been set forth in the Dharmasastras composed by the noble (sages) in order to destroy the evils amassed in former (lives)…. If everything is brought about by fate…then all undertakings are without purpose, even the sacrifices that are supposed to achieve heaven. If this is so. then the authority (of the Vedas) is falsely proclaimed, and if the authority is false, why isn’t dharma cut down? But in fact, when an effort is made, success is achieved, night before your eyes. Therefore you should investigate and determine what is to be done to protect this little boy, my little son” [63].

5.2.5 The Conquest of Karma and Reincarnation
If one can reverse fate, one can certainly reverse karma and its consequences. In fact in severe! chapters of the oldest Puranic writings one can read how a sinner can save himself from going to hell. A sinner can save himself by giving gifts (various types) to Brahmins. By giving gifts one can acquire merit and thus abolish even rebirth [64].

Yoga became another means of overcoming karma. Thus for example, in the Markandeya Purana, after setting up an inexorable karma process, it proceeds to undermine it completely with a long chapter on the way that the practice of Yoga releases people from karma [65]. Meditation and renunciation are equally effective as karmic antidotes [66]. The glorification of shrines (tirthamahatmya), pilgrimage and bathing at the holy shrines can wipe away one’s past bad karma. Thus when Parvati asks Siva how evil that has been accumulated in a thousand former births can be worn away, Siva replies that this evil is worn away when one enters the Avimukta shrine at Banares [67].

Though the functions of karma and the mechanisms of rebirth are discussed at great length, the major thrust of the texts is to exhort the worshipper to undertake remedial actions in order to swim like a salmon upstream against the current of karma[68]. Almost every chapter on Karma-vipaka (ripening of karma), which explains how people get to hell by committing sins [69], is followed by a chapter on expiation.

By Bhakti (loving devotion) worship of a personal God (Vishnu or Krishna) is a sure means of overcoming one’s bad karma and its consequences. The Puranas abound in stories in which the unrepentant sinner, about to be dragged away by the minions of Yama, is saved at the last minute by the arrival of the chariot of the servants of the sectarian god. By worshipping Vishnu, one can be “dispensed’, with karma and karma can be conquered by those whom Krishna loves[70].

5.3 Reincarnation in Dharmashastra (The Laws of Manu)
The Dharmashastra dedicates an entire chapter on the theme of karma-samsara, where the mechanism of the transmigration of soul is explained[71]. The Book of Manu introduces a threefold origin of karma: manas (mind), vac (speech) and deha (body) (12.3). Sinful actions which spring from the mind will lead to rebirth in a low caste, evil actions from speech will cause rebirth as a bird of a beast and bodily sinful actions will lead one to be reborn as something inanimate. The book of Law classifies men into three categories according to the predominance of one or the other of the

three constitutive principles (guna) which determine the character of an individual, viz., the sattva (principle of clarity and tranquillity), the rajas (principle of activity and movement), and the tamas (principle of obscurity and inertia)[72]. Those in whom sattva prevails are characterized by goodness and purity, are enlightened by spiritual knowledge and do good works; those in whom rajas prevail are characterized by greediness for fame, power and material goods, and occupy themselves with activities of love and hatred; and those, instead, in whom tamas prevail are characterized by lethargy, impiety, cruelty, ignorance and desires of sensual pleasures. The prevailing of one or other principle derives from the merits or demerits of the past lives[73].

Then the Book of Law then deals in details with the types of future re-births corresponding to the acts done by each one, acts which arise from the above-mentioned principles. At the moment of death, those in whom tamas predominate will be reborn as grass, trees, insects of every type, fishes, snakes, reptiles, birds, lions, boars, evil men, etc., depending on the amount of tamas each one has gathered during his present life and the non-expiated ones of his previous life (12. 42-45); those in whom rajas prevail will be reborn as kings, kshatriyas, servants, drunkards, etc., depending on the amount of rajas each one has collected (12. 46); and those in whom sattva prevails will be reborn as Brahmins, hermits, apsaras (servants of god), sages, etc. (12. 47-50), again depending on the amount of sattva one has gathered.

The Book of Manu deals in a particular way with mahapataka (mortal sins), viz., killing of a Brahman, drinking, stealing and adultery (11. 55), which will lead the offenders to spend large numbers of years in dreadful hells and after that enter into the wheel of samsara. It also deals, in great detail, with the rebirths of all kinds of thieves (12. 61-69) and finally with the rebirths of those who are not faithful to the specific duties of their varnas (four castes): “will migrate into despicable bodies” and “will become the servants of the Dasyus” [74].

In the Dharmasastras the description of various types of rebirth for different types of evil actions outweigh by far the attention given to theoretical considerations and analyzing the technique of karma and rebirth.

6. Popular Theory

Three elements of popular faith merge together in the doctrine of karma: the spirits of the dead exist as preta, in a quasi-material state; the concept of a tribunal in the kingdom of god Yama (the king of the dead, also Dharmaraja, the king of justice); the ascent of the soul to heaven.

The soul as preta lives in an intermediary state (pretyabhava) in which it can die again (punarmyrtyu), which can be averted through performing religious rites. Other conceptions make the preta as “poor souls” which wander about in the houses of the living, if they are not assisted properly, viz., if their family members on earth fail to offer the religious rituals (sraddha). Then, once the soul (preta) is completely purified of its sins, becomes devoyana and enters brahmaloka (heaven, paradise), or enjoys first the fruits of his good acts in chandraloka (the sphere of the moon) on the “way of the fathers” (pitryana), to be reborn after enjoying the fruits of his good actions [76]. The bad karma has to be completely wiped off in hell. The time spent in the intermediates states are phases of purification. The sraddha ceremonies, performed after the death of a deceased, help him in his journey through the intermediary kingdom (prevent him from dying a new death) and influence on the karmic order.

7. Towards the Ultimate Liberation

The fundamental teaching of the four Vedus, the Bhagavat Gim, the Puranas and other religious texts of Hinduism, is not reincarnation, rebirth, but the ultimate liberation or salvation. In fact the necessity of transmigration is a nightmare for the Hindus [77]. The ultimate scope is moksha or multi, and in order to arrive at moksha, Hinduism proposes different ways (yoga or marga), by which one can reach spiritual perfection and finally eternal salvation of the soul: the way of action (karma-marga), the way of loving devotion towards God and abnegation (bhaktimarga), the way of concentration (raja yoga) and the way of spiritual knowledge (jnana-marga), of the non duality of Atmar’ (the ‘self’ or the individual ‘I’) and Brahman (the Absolute).

According to the Advaiia Vedanta (the absolute non-dualism of Sankara) the only absolute reality is Brahman and the most intimate reality of man (the self or Atman) is the same Brahman. All the rest is maya, an illusion, a veil placed over by the same Brahman. Salvation or liberation consists precisely in the realization of A`man is Brahman through the jnana-yoga (marga). Only the one who is liberated knows the One (Absolute) and for the one who knows reincarnation is an illusion. Instead, the one who does not know, does not realize Atman is Brahman, continues to live in illusion and considers vam.sara as real.

8. Eschatology

What is the condition of the liberated soul? According to Advaita Vedanta, the individual soul (atman) looses its false individuality by realizing its identity with Brahman: “I am Brahman” (A ham Brahmasmi). It is a state of supreme beatitude, bliss, knowledge and pure existence. For the Nyaya Vaiseshika and the Mimamsa schools, the liberated soul exists deprived of any pleasurable or painful experience; it does not have neither happiness nor consciousness. According to the Samkhya Yoga, the liberated soul exists in a solitary state of tranquillity; experiences its intimate nature as pure spirit without having any relationship with matter [78].

The popular theist sects (Vishnuism, Sivaism, Shaktism, etc.), hold on to the view that the liberated soul keeps its individual identity and enjoys the beatific vision and communion with a personal God.

9. Arguments in Favor of the Theory of Reincarnation in Hinduism

9.1 Metaphysical Arguments
Metaphysical arguments, as such, in favor of reincarnation do not exit, because no philosophical schools of Hinduism deny this doctrine [79]. It is, in fact, a question of faith that one tries to understand, without putting it to discussion or deny it. The karma-samsara is Original Sin for the Hindus and is one among the very few dogmas of faith, as we have mentioned above. Modern Hindu philosophers, however, propose a metaphysical argument, viz., that the soul (atman) is eternal, but the normal condition of the soul is that it is associated with a body. It is probable, therefore, that the soul in the past would have had and in the future will have a succession of bodies.

9.2 Empirical Arguments
From the empirical point of view, some facts that occur are considered to prove the truth of reincarnation. Thus for example, the existence of prodigious children (like Mozart or Menuhin) who with their instinctive capacity far superior and prodigious in every way goes to prove that they had a training (or knowledge) before they were born, or those, for example, Bridey Murphy, yogis and Buddhist saints, who claim to remember their previous births and lives, or again the deja vu experience of some people who have explicit knowledge of people and places without having had any previous contact with them, or, finally, the conception that since the soul is indivisible it cannot be derived from parents.

9.3 The Argument of Evolution
In the philosophical system of Sri Aurobindo, reincarnation is a necessary and indispensable mechanism for the dynamic process of evolution of the universe [80]. According to him, the whole universe is a manifestation, an self-revelation of the Supreme Spirit, Saccidananda. The various grades of beings are similarly grades of involution or self-limitation of the Spirit. But then through various stages of evolution, the Spirit recovers his original nature; that is, matter evolves gradually in the Spirit. Involution is the decent of the Spirit, while evolution is ascent to the Spirit. Through the process of evolution, the human mind is still to evolve itself to become superman which will then finally culminate in SaccidCananda. Hence the soul did not begin its existence in human form, but in subhuman forms and is on the way to becoming superman [81].

9.4 Theological Arguments
In favor of reincarnation, from the theological point of view some reasonable and interesting observations are made by Hindu Theologians.

1. Faith in reincarnation is confirmed by the Vedas, which are revealed and therefore contain intuitions of rishis (sages, holy persons) that are true, precisely because they are expressions supported by authentic testimony.

2. Rebirth, associated with karma, offers a fitting solution to the great problem or mystery of evil (inequality, injustice, suffering: all results of past actions: karma). Justice demands, calls for reincarnation. So much of inequality exists among men: some are strong and healthy, others instead are weak and sick, deaf and dumb, blind, mentally and physically handicapped. Some are rich, others are poor, etc. What is the reason for all this? It cannot be from God, because He is goodness and love. It cannot be attributed to the responsibility of others (first parents, for example) which would be unjust. All these problems and diff’culties can be overcome by accepting the doctrine of karma-samsara or the transmigration of souls according to the inviolable law of retribution. Each one is responsible for his own destiny in his life.

3. The doctrine of transmigration offers the possibility of a long period of time for the process of self-purification and self-perfection. Everyone has the possibility of achieving his ultimate goal, moksha. No one is exempt from it.

4. God the Creator, good and merciful, cannot punish his creature (the soul) for all eternity in hell, but offers him always new chances so that he can arrive at his final goal, viz., to be united with Him (Atman is Brahman).

10. Conclusion

Practically all the religions speak of an intermediary existence, of a sort of purgatory, a place and a time to expiate one’s sins, between the earthly existence and the final one of absolute happiness (salvation, liberation, makti, moksha, nirvana, beatific vision of God or union with God, the Absolute).

The reincarnation of the soul is one way of explaining or representing this intermediary existence.

The doctrine of reincarnation is considered to be fundamentally evil; it is like the doctrine of original sin (for Christians), which remains a mystery of faith and evades every sort of rational explanation.

At the same time all the religions propose ways and means to overcome or to escape from this intermediary state of existence so as to reach the ultimate scope of human existence, viz., eternal happiness or union with God.

The fundamental preoccupation of any religion, including Hinduism, is not so much to propose or to give solutions to the problem of this intermediary existence (including reincarnation) as such, but to bring all to final salvation (heaven, moksha, nirvana), by proposing ways and means to arrive at the final goal, which for Hinduism includes also the definitive liberation from the karma-samvara or the chain of reincarnation.

NOTES
1 ACHARUPARAMBIL D., Induismo. Vita e pensiero, Roma, PP. Carmelitarni Scalzi, 1976, p. 15.
2 Ibid., pp. 15-18.
3 LONG J.B., “Reincarnation”, in ELIADE M. (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. XII, New York, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987, p. 265.
4 Ibid., pp. 265-266
5. ACHARUPARAMBIL D.. lnduismo. Vita e oensiero, op. cit., p. 199.
6 MAHONY W. K., “Karman”, in ELIADE M. (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. VIII, New York, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987,p.261.
7 ACHARUPARAMBIL D., Induismo. Vita e pensiero, op.cit., p.200.
8. SMITH B.K., “Samsara”, in ELIADE M (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. XIII, New York, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987,p.56. .
9 TAPASYANANDA S., The Bhagavad Gita and the Methods of its Study, in “The Vedanta Kesari” 58(1971)8,p. 74.
10 According to Swami Sridharananda the suEsma-sarira is “constituted by the seventeen components, namely, the five jnanendriyas (organs of knowledge), the five karmendriyas (organs of action), the five pranas and the manas (mind) and ahamkara (ego).” See Swami Sridharanada, Sri Krishna’s First Sermon: A Running Commentary on the Second Chapter of the Gita, in “Prabhudha Barata 91 (1986),p.195. In his enumeration, the component buddhi is omitted.
11 ACHARUPARAMBIL D., Induismo. Vita e pensiero, op. cit., p. 201.
12 KEITH A. B., The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, Part II, Delhi, Motilal Banarasidass,
1989, p 570.
13 Ibid., pp. 570-571.
14 O’FLAHERTY W. D., Karma and Rebirth in the Vedas and Puranas, in: O’FLAHERTY W. D (Ed.), Karma and
Rebirth in Classical lndian Traditions, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1983, p. 3.
15 Ibid.
16 Also known as preta-karma, which is rite performed some days after the antyeshti (sacrament of the last rites, cremation). It is to assist the deceased, now a disembodied spirit (preta) to get a new body in heaven (Rigvedic eschatology) or in order to help the preta to pass to the kingdom of pitarah.
17 Pinda is a ball of cooked rice mixed with other ingredients (sesame, milk, butter, honey, etc.) and is offered to the dead ancestors in limbo as a transitional food mediating between death and rebirth.
18 KNIPE D. M., Sapindikarana: The Mndu Rite of Entry into Heaven, in FRANK REYNOLDS – EARLE H.WAUGH ((Eds.), Religious Encounters with Death, Insights from the History and Anthropology of Religions, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977, p. 112; cited by O’FLAHERTY W. D. (Ed), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, op. cit., p. 3.
19 O’FLAHERTY W .D., Reincarnation in Hinduism, in “Concilium”, 29 (1993) 5, p. 3.
20 Cited in O’FLAHERTY W. DReincarnation in Hinduism, in “Concilium”, 29 (1993) 5 p. 3.
21 Ibid. p. 4.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid., p. 5
26 THURUTHIYIL S., La reincarnazione nelle grand) religion), in FIZZOTTI E. (Ed.), Quante vite viviamo? Dibattito sulla reincarnazione, Roma, Las, 1995, p. 27.
27 KEITH A B, op cit, p 573
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
30 Changogya Upanishad 5.3.1-10; cited in O’FLAHERTY W. D., Reincarnation in llinduism, in “Concilium” 29 (1993) 5, pp. 7-8.
3] O’FLAHERTY W. D., Reincarnation in Hinduism, in “Concilium”, 29 (1993) 5, p.8.
32 LONG J. B., Reincarnation, in ELIADE M. (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 12, New York, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987, p. 266.
33 Bhagavat Gita, 6 40-45.
34 O’FLAHERTY W. D., Reincarnation in Hinduism, in “Conclium’, 29 (1993) 5, p. 9. 35 Brahma Purana 217. 1- 16.
36 Garuda Purana, Uttara Khanda, 2. 22-2s.
37 Brahmavaivarta Purana 2. 32.27-32.
38 Visnudharmottara Purana 116. 1-12; 2. 113-114; Markandeya Purana 10. 48b-50; -.63b-72; Agni Purana 369. 1
10; 371. 6-11
39 Agni Purana 369.15-19; Visnudharmottara Purana 2.113.1-25.
40 Markandoya Purana 10.88-92.
4] Ibid 11 1 – 13 – 22-24.
42 Harivamsa (Poona, 1969), appendix II (sesadharmaprarakarana), lines 2909-2915; cf. O’FLAHERTY, Karma and Rebirth in the Vedas and Puranas, op. cit., p. 19.
43 Linga Purana 88.47-48.
44 Padma Purana 2. 94.12.
45 Bhavisya Purana 4.4.6-8.
46 Garuda Purana, Uttara Khanda 22.18-20.
47 Garuda Purana, Uttara Khanda 22.17.
48 Agni Purana 151. 18: pitur matusca karmatah.
49 Agni Purana 369.31-32; 370.19-20.
so Mahabharata 1.76-91; S.118- 120.
51 Padma Purana 2.29-33; Bhagavata Purana 4.13; Vamana Purana, S. 26.
52 Skanda Purana 7.1.336.95-252; Garuda Purana 6.4-8.
53 Brahmanda Purana 2. 36.127-227; Skanda Purana 7. 1.337.72-175; Harivamsa 5.1-21; 6.1-4; Brahma Purana 4. 28-122; VamanaPurana, S. 26.31; VisnuPurana 1. 13.7-41.
54 Bhagavata Purana 4.13-15; Padma Purana 2.27.19-46.
55 Matsya Purana 30. 12.
56 Linga Purana 1. 64.109-111.
57 Bhagavata Purana 4 . 1 1.21-25.
58 Matsya Purana 4. 6.
59 Ibid., 6. 10.17-19, -.38b.
60 Vamana Purana 49-50; cf. Devibhagavata Purana 6. 17.40 and 9. 40.70-91 for other examples of Indra’s karma.
61 SkandaPurana 2. 7.23.~-40.
62 FLarirnm.`n 47 1 15
63 Devithagavata Purana 4.21.5-17.
64 MatsyaPurana 57.27; 59.19; 206.17-18.
65 Markandeya Purana 39.
66 Linga Purana 1.86.15-21.
67 MatsyaPurana 181.10,-.17-18.
68 Cf. O’FLAT~ERI?Y W.D., Karma and Rebirth, op. cit., p. l4.
69 Visnu Purana 2.6; Vamana Purana 12; Agni Purana 370; Markandeya Purana 14; Bhagavata Purana 3.30;
Purana 1.15.31, etc.
70 Devithagavata Purana 9. 29-30; Varaha Purana 5; Brahmavaivarta Purana 2.29-33; 4.74.
71 Dharmashastra 12.1-82.
72 Dharmashastra 12.24-28;cf.ACHARUPARAM~ILD., Induismo. Vita e pensiero. op. citp. 205.
73 Ibid.
74 ROCHERL., Karma and Rebirth in the Dharmasastras, in O’FLAHERTY W.D.(Ed.), Karma and Rebirth in
Classical Hinduism, op.cit.,pp.67-76.
75 Ibid., p. 77.
76 THURUTHIYILS., La reincarnazione nelle grand) religion), op. cit., p. 31.
77 ACHARUMPARAMBIL D., Induismo. Vita e penisero, op. cit., p. 210.
78 ACHARUPARAMBIL, Induismo. Vita e pensiero, op. cit. p. 211.
79 Cf. SMART N., Reincarnation, in EDWARDS P. (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Macmillan Company and the Free Press, New York, 1967, vol. VII, p. 123.
80 Cf. ACHARUPARABIL D., Induismo. Vita e pensiero, op. cit., pp. 207-208.
81 SRI AUROBINDO Life Divine, vol. 2, Pondicheny, 1970, pp. 760-764.

Sandhyopasana

Sandhyopasana literally means – worship at the junctions of time. – It is a prayer and worship offered to the Lord at the junction (Sandhi) of night and morning, forenoon and afternoon and at the junction of evening and night. The Arghyapradana to the sun and the meditation on and recitation of Gayatri, form the heart of the worship. Properly understood, the whole Sandhya is an earnest prayer addressed to the Lord to forgive all ones sins committed during ones routine, daily activities and to bestow illumination and grace.

Sandhyopasana must be performed at the proper Sandhyas. Then only the performer can derive much merit. There is a special manifestation of force at Sandhyas. This force disappears when the Sandhya is past.

An Obligatory Duty

Sandhyopasana is the daily religious practice of the Hindus whose investiture with the holy thread has been performed. Sandhya is a Nitya Karma or an action that is to be done daily. Sandhya is an obligatory duty to be performed daily for self-purification and self-improvement.

Sandhya should be performed by all followers of the Sanatana Dharma. Every Brahmachari and every householder must perform it every day. If he fails to perform it, there is Pratyavaya Dosha or the sin of omission. He loses his Brahma-Tejas.

According to the Hindu Sastras, a Brahmana, a Kshatriya and a Vaisya will get hell, if they do not perform three times Sandhyopasana (Traikalika Sandhya) daily. It is for the purpose of Sandhya only, the law of Yajnopavita-Samskara is laid down in the Yajnavalkya Smriti which says: – The Brahmana in his eighth year, the Kshatriya in his eleventh year and the Vaisya in his twelfth year are fit to be given Yajnopavita. – Because, only after this particular Samskara, they are supposed to be worthy to worship Sandhya and take to Vedic rites. They should keep themselves pure internally and externally. They can nicely understand the sacred glory of this divine science.

Benefits Of  Sandhyopasana

Sandhya is a combination of Japa, Upasana, Svadhyaya, meditation, concentration, Asana, Pranayama, etc. He who does Sandhya daily has Brahma-Tejas or spiritual lustre, in his face. A man who performs his daily Sandhya, according to the prescribed rules, at the appointed time as laid down in the scriptures, attains purity and success in his every effort. He becomes powerful as well as calm. Regular Sandhya cuts the chain of old Samskaras and changes everybodys old situation entirely. It brings purity, Atma-Bhava, devotion and sincerity.

The Ceremony

The important features of this ceremony are: (i) Achamana or sipping of water with recitation of Mantras (viz., Achyutaya Namah, Anantaya Namah, Govindaya Namah, etc.), Marjana or sprinkling of water on the body which purifies the mind and the body, Aghamarshana or expiation for the sins of many births, and Surya Arghya or oblations of water to the Sun-god, (ii) Pranayama or control of breath which steadies the wandering mind, and silent recitation of Gayatri, (iii) Upasthana or religious obeisance.

Arghya

The first part up to Arghya consists of hymns addressed to water and its benefits. The sprinkling of water on the face and the head and the touching of the different organs (the mouth, nose, eyes, ears, chest, shoulders, head, etc.) with wetted fingers, are meant to purify those parts of the body and invoke the respective presiding deities on them. They also stimulate the nerve-centres and wake up the dormant powers of the body.

The Arghya drives the demons who obstruct the path of the rising sun. Esoterically, lust, anger and greed are the demons who obstruct the intellect from rising up. The intellect is the sun.

Pranayama and Japa

The second part of Sandhya consists of Pranayama and Japa of Gayatri.

Suryopasthana

The third part of Sandhya is the Suryopasthana. It is a prayer for forgiveness, mercy and grace. The prayer is: – Let me not go down to the earthly house. Have mercy, O Lord! My strength was very weak, O Lord! I did wrong actions. Have mercy, O Lord! – These are Vedic hymns addressed to the sun in the morning, noon and evening. The sun is the intellect in man. Ignorance is the night. Knowledge is the light. When you rise up from the darkness of ignorance, when the eye of intuition is opened through the grace of Gayatri, the Blessed Mother of the Vedas, you attain eternal bliss, supreme peace and immortality. It is that divine light which dispels delusion and the darkness of ignorance. It is that adorable splendour with which the world is glowing. It is that holy lustre which graciously fills the heart of a devotee with eternal bliss. It is this supreme Light which the aspirant craves from God through the Gayatri Mantra. He begs of God this Knowledge for his Realisation.

Sandhyopasana – An Exact Science

Man naturally wants to realise the Truth. He wants to know the secret of Creation. In this connection, scriptures emphatically declare: – Only at the moment when all doubts are cleared, ignorance is destroyed, hypocrisy and cruelty are rent asunder, and when a man sees Him in the abode of his heart, the real and ultimate Truth is revealed. -

Sandhya-Vijnana or the Science of Sandhya is an exact science to attain success in the realm of Truth. One need not have any kind of superstition to learn this divine science. One need not prove its greatness. Its greatness, its glory, is open truth. Even the materialistic society of today agrees with the truth of Sandhya-Vijnana. In the scriptures, it is laid: – Brahmanhood is the tree, Sandhya is its root, Vedas are its branches, religious acts are its leaves; therefore take care of its root, i.e., Sandhya. – Now the glory of Sandhya is very clear. Sandhya is absolutely necessary for a man who is treading the path of Truth. Aharahah Sandhyamupasita, i.e., a Brahmin should perform regularly his daily Sandhya at any cost – is the injunction of the scriptures.

Prerequisites For The Practice Of Sandhya

Diet

If you want to learn this science, you must be careful about your diet. Take regular and light Sattvic food. Man is much influenced by his diet. See the difference between a small lion and a big elephant. You will be able to improve yourself by adjusting your diet. Idleness is due to a variety of rich diet only. Therefore, be strict in your daily diet. You will be ever active and strong.

Sitting Pose

A man who performs Sandhya does not care about his sitting pose. He sits in any posture. This is not much beneficial. He should daily sit in a perfect posture, Padmasana or Sukhasana, facing the particular direction. As far as possible, he must finish his Sandhya in one sitting. He must have perfect mastery over Asana. Then he will have concentration in his Sandhya.

Faith and Devotion

You must do your Sandhya with faith and devotion. Mere repetition will not bring much good. Pray from the core of your heart to the Lord to forgive your sins.

A Word To The Younger Generation

Our young college students, who are under the influence of wrong Samskaras and wrong education and evil company, have forgotten all about the glory and high efficacy of Sandhya. They are not doing Sandhya. Sandhya has no meaning for them. They have become Godless men. They want laboratory tests and scientific proofs for the usefulness of Sandhya, before they begin to do Sandhya. It must be supported by the statements of western scientists. The words of ancient Rishis do not appeal to them. What a greatly degraded state!

O young students! Do not ruin yourself by neglecting Sandhya. Regular performance of Sandhya will give you success in life and material and spiritual prosperity, good health and long life, purity of heart, and help you to attain God-realisation. Do it from now at least. Yet there is hope for you. Wake up. Be sincere.

Now take strict resolve from this very moment to be regular in your daily Sandhya, even under many distractions and obstacles. Begin it from this very moment. Do not delay. Reduce your useless activities. Talk little. Do not mix much. You will get plenty of time for your Sandhya.

Be strict in your Sandhya. Let there be rain or wind. Even if the Pralaya comes, do not leave it half-done. Many people say that they have not got time to perform Sandhya. They have to attend several functions. This is due to their weakness and lack of good Samskaras. They do not know the glory of this divine science. If they see one of their friends sitting on the banks of the river and performing Sandhya, they will begin to shout or they will play some sort of mischief. But these poor creatures do not know what secret is hidden behind the Sandhya. The Secret of secrets is hidden in this sacred performance. This is why ancient Rishis say: – One who does not perform daily Sandhya is a real animal. -

May God give you the mind to perform daily Sandhya at any cost. May you follow the rules of Sandhya. May you realise the glory of Sandhya-Vijnana and be free from all tribulations and torments. May the divine science named Sandhya-Vijnana bestow purity, immense joy and immortality on you!

The Ten Scriptural Samskaras

The rites that pertain to the stages of life of man are called Samskaras. The Samskaras are purificatory rites which sanctify the life of the Hindu. They give a spiritual touch to the important events in the life of the individual from conception to cremation. They mark the important stages of a mans life. Just as the outline of a picture is lighted up slowly with the filling in of many colours, so also is Brahmanya with scriptural Samskaras. There are the Samskaras of childhood, of boyhood, of manhood and of old age and death.

There are  fifty-two Samskaras. Among these, ten are important. The ten principal and generally recognised Samskaras are: Garbhadana, Pumsavana, Simantonnayana, Jatakarma, Namakarana, Annaprasana, Chudakarma, Upanayana, Samavartana and Vivaha. Of these ten, only some are now performed. Some of the Samskaras pertain to infantile life and early childhood. Some are ceremonies which may be performed daily or on special occasions. The whole life of the Hindu is thus consecrated and protected from the cradle to the grave.

Garbhadana

The Garbhadana sanctifies the creative act. The husband prays fervently from the core of his heart that a child may be conceived. He repeats sacred Mantras during Ritu-Santi ceremony or nuptials. The new child is conceived amidst the vibration of Mantras. Good impressions are impressed in the brain-cells of the embryo. For a real Hindu who is endowed with pure intellect and right understanding, the sexual union is not for the sake of mere enjoyment. He utilises the divine, creative, vital energy for the formation of a human body. Husband and wife should be cheerful and pious when they have intercourse. When their minds are perturbed or agitated, or when there is anger or hatred, they should avoid copulation. They should study holy scriptures. If they have the image of Arjuna, they will have a chivalrous and wise son. If they have the image of Lord Buddha, they will bring forth a son with mercy and other good virtues. If they have the image Of Dhanvantari, they will get a son who will turn out to be a reputed Ayurvedic doctor. If they think of Surya or Sun-God, they will bring forth a lustrous son with splendour and effulgence.

Pumsavana

In the third month, the Pumsavana is performed with Mantras. The food-sheath and the vital-sheath of the child are formed.

Simantonnayana

The Simantonnayana is performed at the seventh month with recitation of Veda Mantras. This protects the mother from evil influences and bestows health on the child. The above three Samskaras protect the mother and the child. The body of the child develops nicely. The harmonious vibrations set up by the recitation of Mantras and the performance of the ceremonies help in shaping the body of the child beautifully.

Jatakarma

The next Samskara, the ceremony performed immediately after the birth of the child, is the Jatakarma. The father welcomes his new-born child. He prays for its long life, intelligence and well-being, and feeds it with honey and butter.

Namakarana

Then comes Namakarana or the naming ceremony. The new-born child is given a name on the tenth, eleventh or twelfth day with recitation of Mantras.

Annaprasana

The Annaprasana comes in the sixth month when the child is given solid food for the first time. Mantras are recited and oblations are offered to the various deities.

Chudakarma

The Chudakarma, the tonsure or shaving of the head, is performed in the first or third year. The Karnavedha or ear-boring ceremony is performed in the fifth or the seventh year or at the end of the first year with the Chudakarma. The body of the child is protected and harmonised by these ceremonies. Any hereditary defect that arises from defect of semen and embryo is removed. Vidyarambha also is another Samskara. Alphabet is taught to the child. This is also known by the name Aksharabhyasa. These Samskaras pertain to the child stage of life.

Upanayana

The most important ceremony which marks the beginning of the next stage of life – the stage of youth – is Upanayana. Upanayana is a very important Samskara. It is a landmark in the life of the child. It is his second or spiritual birth. The word Upanayana means bringing near.

The boy is brought near his Guru, spiritual teacher. The preceptor invests him with the sacred thread, Yajnopavita, and initiates him by giving him the Gayatri Mantra, and gives him a staff. This is the beginning of Brahmacharya Asrama, during which Brahmacharya – perfect or entire celibacy – is enjoined. He is to begin the life of study. The initiation makes him a Dvija, twice-born. The father and the mother gave birth to him from mutual desire. This is his physical birth. Initiation into Gayatri Mantra is his another, true birth. According to Yajnavalkya, the Upanayana ceremony is performed at the eighth year for a Brahmana, eleventh for a Kshatriya and twelfth for a Vaisya. Manu gives the age at the fifth year for a Brahmana, the sixth for a Kshatriya and the eighth for a Vaisya.

Significance of the Sacred Thread and Other Symbols

The sacred thread or Yajnopavita consists of three threads knotted together. He who wears the thread should have a triple control, over his mind, speech and body – thought, word and deed. The holy thread signifies the various triads which exist in the world, viz., Sat, Chit and Ananda; creation, preservation and destruction; the three states of waking, dreaming and deep sleep; the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas; the Trimurtis Brahma, Vishnu and Siva; etc.

The staff signifies that the student should have control over his thoughts, words and actions. He who practises control over his thoughts, words and actions, and he who practises Brahmacharya in thought, word and deed, attains perfection.

The boy wears a Kaupina, a small yellow cloth and a girdle of Munja grass. The Acharya puts on him a deerskin. The new yellow cloth represents the new body. Yellow colour is a symbol of spirituality. Wearing of Kaupina indicates that the boy should lead a pure life of perfect celibacy. The girdle is wound round thrice. This indicates that the boy has to study the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The deer-skin represents the ascetic life he should lead.

Samavartana

Then comes the end of the student stage, the Samavartana. The student, having completed the Vedic studies and the Vratas, presents his preceptor with a gift and obtains permission to take the formal bath which marks the close of his student-career. He returns home and performs the Samavartana, the returning ceremony. He is now ready to marry and enter the second stage or Grihastha Asrama, the life of a householder.

Vivaha

Vivaha is marriage or entry into the second Asrama. The life of the householder begins. Now he takes up his duties as man and pays his spiritual debts by sacrifice, by study and by procreating children. The bridegroom tells the bride: – I take your hand for good fortune. – They walk round the sacred fire hand-in-hand. The bride sacrifices grains in the fire and prays: – May my husband live long. May my relations increase. -

The Last Two Stages Of Life

There are two more stages, viz., Vanaprastha and Sannyasa, with their rites.

Man withdraws himself from all worldly activities, retires into the forest and prepares himself for taking Sannyasa. This is the life of a Vanaprastha.

A Sannyasin renounces the world and leads a life of study and meditation by living on alms.

Pretakarma is funeral rite. When a man dies, the funeral ceremonies are performed by his son and heir.

The Pancha Mahayajnas

There are five great daily sacrifices that are to be performed by every householder. They are: (i) Brahma Yajna, called also Veda Yajna, sacrifice to Brahman or the Vedas or the sages; (ii) Deva Yajna, sacrifice to the celestials; (iii) Pitri Yajna, sacrifice to the manes; (iv) Bhuta Yajna, sacrifice to all the creatures; and (v) Manushya Yajna, sacrifice to men.

The performance of these five Yajnas is conducive to the spiritual evolution or growth of a man. He gradually learns that he is not a separate entity or isolated creature or isolated unit, but is a part of a great whole. He obtains knowledge by studying the sacred scriptures written by great Rishis. He gets help from his friends, relatives and fellow-beings. He parents gave his physical body. His body is nourished by the milk of cows, grains, vegetables and fruits. The five elements help him. He cannot live without oxygen and water. The Devas and the Pitris bless him. Therefore, he owes a fivefold debt to Nature. He must pay back his debt by performing these five sacrifices daily. Further, numerous insects are killed by him unconsciously during walking, sweeping, grinding, cooking, etc. This sin is removed by performance of these sacrifices.

The Five Yajnas

The Rishis, the Devas, the Pitris, the Bhutas and the guests expect help from the householders. Hence, they should perform these five sacrifices daily. Teaching and study of scriptures is Brahma Yajna; Tarpana or offering of water to the ancestors, and Sraaddha, form Pitri Yajna: Homa or oblations into the fire is Deva Yajna; Bali or offering of food to all creatures is Bhuta Yajna; and hospitality to guests is Manushya Yajna or Atithi Yajna.

Brahma Yajna or Rishi Yajna

Every man should study daily the sacred scriptures. He should share the knowledge with others. This is Brahma Yajna or Rishi Yajna. By so doing, he pays the debt to Rishis.

Deva Yajna

Lord Krishna says in the Bhagavad-Gita: – Having, in ancient times, emanated mankind together with sacrifice, the Lord of Creation said, – By this shall ye propagate; be this to you the fulfiller of desires. With this, nourish ye the shining ones; and may the shining ones nourish ye. Thus nourishing one another, ye shall reap the highest good. For, nourished by sacrifice, the shining ones shall bestow on you the enjoyments you desire. A thief verily is he who enjoyeth what is given by them without returning them anything. The righteous, who eat the remains of the sacrifice, are freed from all sins; but the unpious who cook for their own sake, they verily eat sin, – (Ch. III-10, 11, 12, 13). Manu says: – Let a man ever engage in the study of the Vedas and in the rites of the Devas; engaging in the rites of the Vedas, he supports the movable and the immovable kingdoms. – These sacrifices turn the wheel of life in accordance with the divine will and thus help the evolution of man and the worlds.

Pitri Yajna

Offering libations, etc., to the forefathers, regularly, is Pitri Yajna.

Bhuta-Yajna

Distribution of food to cows, dogs, birds, fish, etc., is Bhuta Yajna.

Manushya Yajna

Feeding the poor is Manushya Yajna. Feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, giving shelter to the homeless, comforting the distressed, etc., are all forms of Manushya Yajna. Any kind of service to the suffering humanity is Manushya Yajna. Feeding a guest is Manushya Yajna.

Benefits Of The Pancha Mahayajnas

By daily doing such acts of kindness and sympathy, man develops mercy. Hatred vanishes. His hard egoistic heart is gradually softened. He cultivates cosmic love. His heart expands. He has a wider outlook on life. He tries to feel his oneness with all beings. His old feeling of separateness on account of selfishness and egoism is gradually thinned and eventually eradicated. He learns that he can be happy only by making others happy, by serving others, by helping others, by removing the sufferings of others and by sharing what he has with others. The five great daily sacrifices teach man his relations with his superiors, his equals and his inferiors.

Man has no separate individual existence. He is connected with the world. He is like a bead in the rosary. His whole life must be a life of sacrifice and duties. Then only he will have rapid evolution. Then only he will realise the supreme bliss of the Eternal. Then only he will free himself from the round of births and deaths and attain immortality.

Sraaddha And Tarpana

Sraaddha is the name of the ceremonies performed by relatives to help the Jiva who has cast off his physical body in death. A Jiva who has cast off his physical sheath is called a Preta. The part of the Sraaddha performed to help him at this stage is called the Preta Kriya.

How Sraaddha And Tarpana Benefit The Departed Souls

Gifts to deserving Brahmanas for the benefit of the Pitris, in the proper time and place and with faith, are known as Sraaddha. Sraaddha gives satisfaction to the Pitris. By the offering of the sixteen Sraaddhas, the son helps his father to dwell in joy with the Pitris. The son should perform the Sapindikarana rites for his father. Performance of Sraaddha and Tarpana relieves the hunger and thirst of the departed soul during its journey to the Pitri Loka.

Those who go to hell are extremely oppressed by hunger and thirst. Performance of Sraaddha and offerings of rice and oblations to them, relieve their sufferings. Hence, performance of Sraaddha is indispensable. Those who dwell in heaven also get satisfaction, strength and nourishment.

The Advantages Of Cremation

Cremation is the best way of destroying a dead body. This is highly beneficial for the departed soul. If the body is not burnt; the Jiva is linked to the earth. The soul hovers round or hangs about the dead body on account of Moha or attachment to the physical body. Its journey to the celestial regions is interfered with. The vibrations set up by the recitation of Mantras and the offerings and oblations of water, bring solace and comfort to the departed soul. The Sapindikarana ceremony helps the Jiva to pass from the Preta Loka to the Pitri Loka. He is then enrolled among the Pitris or the ancestors. The son walks three times round the dead body of his father before fire is set to the pyre and sprinkles water once, reciting the Mantra: – Go away. Withdraw and depart from here. – The bones are collected on the next day and thrown into a river. Those who can afford take them to Benares or Haridwar and throw them into the Ganga. It is believed that the soul whose mortal remains are consigned to the sacred Ganga attains to the higher regions of spiritual light and splendour and, in the end, salvation.

The Two Classes Of Pitris

Immediately after death, the Jiva obtains the Ativahika body which is made up of fire, air and ether. Later on, it may have a Yatana Deha for suffering the tortures of hell if it had done great sins on the earth-plane, or a celestial body for enjoying the pleasures of heaven if it had done virtuous actions while living in the world. In the Yatana Deha, the air-element preponderates; while, in the celestial body, the element of fire is dominant. It takes one year for the Jiva to reach the Pitri Loka.

There are two classes of Pitris, viz., the celestial Pitris who are the lords of the Pitri Loka, and the human Pitris who go there after death. Brahma is the paternal grandfather of all. Kasyapa and the other Prajapatis are also Pitris, as they are the original progenitors. Pitri Loka or the Abode of the Pitris is also called by the name Bhuvar Loka.

The word Pitris primarily means the immediate ancestors, viz., father, mother, etc. Sraaddha proper is performed for three generations of Pitris, or to all Pitris. Three cakes are offered to the father, the grandfather and the great grandfather. Two Brahmins are fed first. Seven generations can mutually influence one another by the giving and receiving of food.

Pitripaksha And Mahalaya Amavasya

The dark fortnight of the month of Asvayuja is known as the Pitripaksha or the fortnight of the month specially sanctified for offering oblations to the departed ancestors. And the last day, the day of the new moon, is considered as the most important day in the year for performing obsequies and like rites.

Now, ordinarily, the orthodox Hindus offer oblation of water – Tarpana-Arghya – to the departed every new-moon day. The prescribed rites are also performed every year on the anniversary of the day of death. This is the Sraaddha ceremony. What, then, is the special import of these observances particularly during the Asvayuja Krishna Paksha? The reason is that such ceremonies done during this fortnight have a very special effect. The offerings reach the Pitris immediately and directly, due to a boon from Lord Yama. The occasion for the boon arose as follows:

Origin Of The Pitripaksha

A Story from the Mahabharata

The renowned hero of the Mahabharata, Danavira Karna, when he left the mortal coil, ascended to the higher worlds and reached the region of the heroes. There, the fruit of his extraordinary charity while upon earth came to him multiplied thousandfold, but it came to him in the form of immense piles of gold and silver. Karna had done limitless charity of wealth, but had neglected to do Anna-Dana. Thus he found himself in the midst of wealth and plenty, but with no food to appease him. He prayed to Lord Yama. The Great Ruler responded to Karnas prayer and granted him a respite for fourteen days to return to the earth-plane once again and make up for his former neglect. Karna came down from the Mrityu Loka, and for fourteen days, he fed the Brahmins and the poor, and made offerings of water, etc. He performed the prescribed rites also on the last day. On his return once again to the higher world, the effect of Karnas observances during this fortnight removed all his wants there. The time of this occurrence was the dark fortnight of Asvayuja.

Due to the grace of Lord Yama, it came to be so ordained that such rites done at this particular period acquired the following unique merits. Offerings made at this time reached all departed souls, whether they were kins directly in the line of the offerer or not. Even those who died without progeny received these oblations given on this Pitripaksha Amavasya day. All those who had failed to do deeds of charity and Anna-Dana and were thus denied these comforts in the Pitri Loka, benefited by these ceremonies. Those deceased whose date of death is not known and whose annual Sraaddha cannot be done, they also get these oblations of Pitripaksha. Souls whose life was cut off by violent, accidental or unnatural death and to whom, therefore, offerings cannot reach in the ordinary course, to them, too, the Pitripaksha offerings reach directly. All these the boon of Lord Yama made possible from the time the great Karna performed the Asvayuja-Paksha rites. The Hindus now observe this Paksha with great faith, with strict regulation, taking bath thrice, with partial fasting, etc. On the newmoon day, Sarvapitri Amavasya, the full rites are done and plenty of charity given.

Propitiation Of Departed Spirits

The day of Mahalaya Amavasya is a day of great significance and importance to all Hindus. It is the annual festival for propitiating the spirits of our ancestors, with devout prayers for peace. The Hindu Itihasas say, that on the Mahalaya Amavasya, there is a conjunction of the sun and the moon and that the sun enters the sign Virgo (Kanya). On this day, the departed manes, i.e., our ancestors, leave their abode in the world of Yama and come down to the world of mortals and occupy the houses of their descendants.

The fortnight preceding the new moon is specially consecrated for the propitiation of such departed spirits. The ceremonies performed in honour of the manes or ancestors during each day of this fortnight are considered to be equal to those performed at Gaya. The principle in all such rites is the worship of the departed souls and the satisfaction of their wishes so that they might be in peace during the rest of the year.

Navaratri Or The Nine-Day Worship Of Devi

Religious observances, traditional worship and Vratas have, at times, more than one significance. Apart from being the adoration of the Divine, they are commemorative of stirring bygone events, allegoric when interpreted from the occult standpoint, and are significant pointers guiding the Jiva on his path to Realisation.

Outwardly, the nine days – worship of Devi or the Mother, known as Navaratri Puja, is in the nature of a Vijaya-Utsava. The nine days – triumphs are offered to the Mother for Her successful struggle with the formidable demons led by Sumbha and Nisumbha. But, to the spiritual aspirant in his life of Sadhana, the particular division of the Navaratri into sets of three days to adore different aspects of the Supreme Goddess has got a very sublime, yet thoroughly practical, truth to reveal. In its cosmic aspect, it epitomises the stages of the evolution of man into God, from Jivahood to Sivahood. In its individual import, it shows the course that his spiritual Sadhana should take.

Now, the central purpose of existence is to recognise your eternal identity with the Supreme Spirit. It is to grow into the image of the Divine. The Supreme One embodies the highest perfection. It is spotless purity, Niranjana. To recognise your identity with That, to attain union with That, is verily to grow into the very likeness of the Divine. The Sadhaka has, therefore, as the initial step, to get rid of the countless impurities and the undivine elements, that have come to cling to him in his embodied state. Then he has to acquire lofty virtues and auspicious divine qualities. Thus purified and rendered full of Sattva, Knowledge flashes upon him like the brilliant rays of the sun upon the crystal waters of a perfectly calm lake.

Worship Of Durga

The Eradication of Vices

This process of Sadhana implies resolute will, determined effort and arduous struggle. In other words, strength, infinite Sakti, is the prime necessity. It is the Divine Mother, Supreme Sakti of Brahman, that has to operate through the aspirant. On the first three days, Mother is adored as Power, Force – Durga, the Terrible. You pray to Mother Durga to destroy all your impurities, your vices, your defects. She is to fight with and annihilate the baser animal qualities in the Sadhaka, the lower Asura in his nature. Also, she is the power that protects your Sadhana from its many dangers and pitfalls. Thus, the first three days, marking the first stage of destruction of Mala (impurities) and determined effort and struggle to root out the evil Vasanas in your mind, are set apart for the worship of the Destructive Aspect of the Mother.

Worship Of Lakshmi

The Cultivation Of Virtues

Once you have accomplished your task on overcoming the negative side, that of breaking down the impure Vasanas, propensities and old habits, the next step is to build up a sublime spiritual personality, to acquire positive qualities in place of the eliminated Asuric qualities. The divine qualities – Daivi Sampat – that Lord Krishna enumerates in the Bhagavad-Gita have to be acquired. The Sadhaka must cultivate and develop all the auspicious qualities. He has to pile up immense spiritual wealth to enable him to pay the price for the rare gem of divine wisdom (Jnana Ratna). If this development of the opposite qualities (Pratipaksha Bhavana) is not undertaken in right earnest, the old Asuric nature will raise its head again and again. Hence, this stage is as important in an aspirants career as the previous one. The essential difference is that while the former is a ruthless, determined annihilation of the filthy, egoistic, lower self, the latter is an orderly, steady, calm and serene effort to develop purity. This pleasanter side of the aspirants Sadhana is depicted by the worship of Mother Lakshmi. She bestows on Her devotees the inexhaustible wealth or Daivi Sampat. Lakshmi is the Sampat-Dayini aspect of Brahman. She is Purity Itself. Thus, worship of Goddess Lakshmi is performed during the second set of three days.

Worship Of Sarasvati

The Dawn Of Supreme Wisdom

Once the aspirant succeeds in routing out the evil propensities and in developing Sattvic, pure, divine qualities, he becomes an Adhikari. He is ready now to receive the Light of Supreme Wisdom. He is fit to obtain Divine Knowledge. At this stage comes the devout worship of Sri Sarasvati, who is Divine Knowledge personified, the embodiment of Brahma Jnana. The sound of Her celestial Vina awakens the notes of the sublime Mahavakyas and the Pranava. She bestows the knowledge of the Supreme Nada and then gives full Atma-Jnana as represented by Her pure dazzling snow-white apparel. To propitiate Sri Sarasvati, the giver of Jnana, is therefore, the third stage.

The tenth day – Vijaya Dasami – marks the triumphant ovation of the Jiva at having attained Jivanmukti through the descent of Knowledge by the grace of Goddess Sarasvati. The Jiva rests in its own supreme Self of Sat-Chit-Ananda (Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute). This day celebrates the victory, the achievement of the Goal. The banner of victory flies aloft. Lo! I am He! I am He! Chidananda Rupah Sivoham, Sivoham; Chidananda Rupah Sivoham, Sivoham.

An Arrangement That Ensures Spiritual Success

This arrangement has also a special significance in the aspirants spiritual evolution. It marks the stages of evolution which are indispensable for every Sadhaka, through which every one should pass. One naturally leads to the other, and to short-circuit this would inevitably result in a miserable failure. Nowadays, many ignorant Sadhakas aim straight at the appropriation of Knowledge without the preliminaries of purification and acquisition of Daivi Sampat, and complain that they are not progressing in the path. How can they? Knowledge will not descend till the impurities are washed out and purity is developed. The Sattvic plant can grow on no impure soil.

Follow this arrangement and your efforts will be attended with sure success. This is your path. No other path is known for salvation. Destroy all evil qualities and develop their opposite virtues. By this process you would soon bring yourself up to that perfection which would culminate in the identity with Brahman, which is your Goal. Then all knowledge will be yours, you will be omniscient and omnipotent, and you will feel your omnipresence. You will see yourself in all. You will be a Jivanmukta. You shall achieve eternal victory over the wheel of birth and death, over the demon of Samsara. No more of pain, no more of misery, no more of birth, no more of death for you. Victory, victory be yours!

Glory unto the Divine Mother! Let Her take you, step by step, to the top of the spiritual ladder and unite you with the Lord!!

Source:

http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Hindu_Rituals/id/23073

During the 1960s and 70s, in the midst of the counter culture movement, the Hare Krishna Movement emerged as a highly visible phenomenon. They were known largely for distributing their sacred literature (such as the Bhagavad Gita As It Is and Srimad Bhagvatam), usually at airports and for distributing vegetarian meals. The devotees, chanting the names of Krishna (Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare/ Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare) with drums and cymbals in hand, became a common sight on the streets of major cities around the world.

The Hare Krishna Movement, in the linage of the Brahma-Madhva-Guadiya Vaisnava Sampradaya, was brought to America by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Srila Prabhupada (1896-1977), who arrived on these shores from India by freighter in September of 1965. Prabhupada was at the advanced age of 70 and had only a few dollars in his pocket when he arrived at the docks in New York City.

After several months Prabhupada came to the Lower East Side in New York City. The young people there, the hippies and artists, were in the midst of a period of experimentation with drugs and sex. Here Prabhupada found receptive ears amongst those who were disillusioned with the pursuit of materialism fostered by their parents, their religious traditions, and the establishment. As poet Allen Ginsberg put it ? ?Prabhupada is a downtown swami who mercifully attends to burnt out hippies on the lower east side.?

For those who would become his followers, and for many well wishers and scholars, Srila Prabhupada embodied the ancient Vedic/Vaisnava teachings, and was the modern day representative of an age old lineage of Vaisnava gurus, directly in the line of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who spread Krishna bhakti 500 years ago in India. Prabhupada?s own guru (spiritual teacher) was Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur. Just weeks before he passed away in 1936, Srila Bhaktisiddhanta had requested Prabhupada to make the teaching of Bhagavad Gita available to the English speaking world. It was almost 30 years later that Prabhupada set forth to America to fulfill his guru?s order.

Within a year of his arrival in New York City, Prabhupada had rented a small storefront and an apartment at 26 Second Avenue in New York’s Lower East Side where he incorporated his fledgling movement as the International Society For Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON). This timeless message of ancient India struck a cord with many young people. The movement was soon up and running , and included the Back To Godhead magazine and a rural ashrama in the hills of West Virginia.

In those early days, Prabhupada, accompanied by his youthful disciples (mostly hippies), would chant for the public in nearby Tompkins Square Park . During the next eleven years, Srila Prabhupada saw his humble efforts on the lower east side manifest into the Hare Krishna Movement, which became a world wide religious phenomenon, along with the establishment of the Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, the largest publisher of Vedic literature in the world.

In the last ten years of his life Prabhupada circled the globe 14 times. Sleeping only three hours a day, he maintained a rigorous schedule for himself whereby he translated and wrote over 50 volumes of literature, while nourishing and seeing to the growth of his worldwide movement . By the time he passed away in 1977 at the age of 82, the Hare Krishna movement included almost 10,000 disciples and a 100 centers world wide, including farm communities, schools and vegetarian restaurants.

Source:

http://www2.hanover.edu/newvrindavan/origins.html

It was left to Adhi Sankara to identify the six streams of Hindu pantheon. Vaishnavam, Saivam, Saktham, Kowmaram, Ganapathyam and Sowram are the six distinct religious systems within the larger frame work of Hinduism as identified by Adhi Sankara. The
Vaishnavites worship Vishnu; Saivites worship Siva; the worship of Sakthi, the female principle of Saivam is called Saktham; the worship of Muruga or Subramanya is called Kowmaram; the worship of Ganapathy is called Ganapathyam and those who worship the Sun belong to Sowram.

Of the six, the worship of Siva, Sakthi, Muruga and Ganapathy belong the Saiva School while the other two belong to the Vaishnava School. However, Ganapathy worship is common to both Vaishnavites and Saivites in that Ganapathy finds a place in both Vaishnava and Saiva temples. While Vaishnavam, Saivam and Saktham were developed to finer details of philosophy, metaphysics and rituals, the other three schools were
not equally extensively developed.

Source:

http://www.tamil.net/list/2000-05/msg00474.html

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Post-2

The Indus valley religions are the Dravidian religion, Aryanism, Jainism,  Buddhism, Sikhism, the six fold religions of south India namely  Saivaism, Vaishnavism, Gowmaram, Ganapathyam, Saktham and Sowram,  and in some places traces of Zoroastrianism. It was when the white  people who invaded India, they brought all these religions together
and named it as Hinduism.

DOCTRINE OF TRINITY:
The doctrine of trinity was envisioned in different angles in Hinduism.  When the trinity was explained as Father, Holy Spirit and Son in Christianity,  some Indian Sages envisioned the Holy Spirit in a female form. According to  this group, in a family, if there is a father and a son, naturally there would  be a mother in between them. So, they envisioned the Holy Spirit as mother or Sakthi or Power and they explained the trinity as Appan (father), Ammai (mother) and Mahan (Son). They also explained Siva (which means love), Sakthi (power) and Kumarakkadavul (son of God) as Somaskanda. Somaskanda is a Sanskrit word (Sa+Uma+Skanda) which means God who  is with Uma (Mother) and Skanda (Son). These are known as Saivaism  and Saktham.

Immediately another school of thought emerged. According to it, since a virgin gave birth to a Son by the Holy Spirit, the Holy Spirit must be of  male form, and he was envisioned as Vishnu. They explained all the three  in the trinity (Father, Holy Spirit and the Son as Mummurthy or Thirumurthy) in male forms. This has developed into Vaishnavism.

While Saivism denoted Holy Spirit as Sakthi (female form); Vaishnavism denoted Holy Spirit as Vishnu (male form). The root word for Vishnu is Vinn. Vinn and Vaan refers to the sky or firmament. Trinity is explained in Vaishnavism as Siva, Vishnu and Brahma.

If the left half of Siva’s body is portrayed in female form (Sakthi), he is known as ‘Arthanarieswara’ and if the same left half of Siva’s body is portrayed in male form (Vishnu), he is known as ‘Harihara’. Since the left half of Siva’s body is portrayed in male as well as female form, it clearly shows that the left half of Siva’s body is the metaphorism of Holy Spirit in two different angles.

The Son of God is envisioned in four angles in Saivaism and Vaishnavism. The victory over Satan is explained in Kumarakkadavul (Son of God) concept; Death and resurrection is explained in Ganapathy concept; His power of creation is explained in Brahman (creator) concept;  Seeing Son of God as the light of the world is explained in Aiyappa  concept. People visit Sabarimalai to see light (Mahara Jyothi) in the Aiyappa worship.

Trinity in the Six Fold Religions:

Out of the seven names mentioned above, six have developed into Six-Fold Religions. Saivaism (Father, Mother and Son), Saktham (Siva, Sakthi and Son), Gowmaram (Siva, Sakthi and Son as Murugan), Ganapathyam (Siva, Sakthi and Son as Ganapathy), Vaishnavism (Siva, Vishnu and Son as Brahma), Sowram (Siva, Vishnu and Son
as Aiyappan). The Brahman concept has been corrupted by Aryanism.

Source:

http://thewordoftruthministries.blogspot.com/2008/09/religious-facts.html———-